Sudan
| Sudan | |
|---|---|
| |
| Type | Country |
| Key terms | geography & climate, demographics, economy |
| Related | South Sudan, Nile Basin, Red Sea |
| Examples | Khartoum, Nile River, Darfur |
| Domain | Geography, Politics, Economics |
| Wikidata | Q1049 |
Sudan is a country in northeastern Africa. It spans about 1.86 million square kilometers, making it one of the continent’s largest nations (until 2011 it was Africa’s largest before South Sudan seceded). Sudan’s capital is Khartoum, located at the meeting point of the Blue and White Nile rivers. Long a crossroads of Arab and African cultures, Sudan today is a multi-ethnic, predominantly Muslim nation with a population on the order of 50 million. Its modern history includes colonial rule by Britain and Egypt, independence in 1956, long periods of military government, civil wars, and recent uprisings.
Geography and Climate. Sudan stretches from the Egyptian border in the north to the South Sudan frontier in the south, and from the Red Sea coast in the east to Chad and the Central African Republic in the west. Much of northern Sudan lies in the Sahara Desert and is very arid. Southward, the land gives way to semi-arid savanna and grassland. The Nile River dominates the landscape: the White Nile flows north from the East African highlands through swampy regions, while the Blue Nile carries monsoon rains from Ethiopia. These two branches meet in Khartoum and form the main Nile, which then continues north into Egypt. The eastern border runs along the Red Sea, giving Sudan about 853 km of coastline with coral reefs and islands. Elevations are generally moderate; the highest point is Jebel Marra (about 3,000 m) in Darfur.
Sudan’s climate is typically very hot. In the desert north, daytime temperatures can exceed 40°C and annual rainfall may be only a few dozen millimeters. In the south and during the summer rainy season (roughly June–September in the far south, shorter in the north), average rainfall can reach several hundred millimeters or more. The southern and western regions have a true wet season, supporting grasslands and floodplain agriculture; the far north remains hyper-arid except along irrigated river valleys. Seasonal winds such as the hot, dusty Harmattan from the Sahara and occasional line-progressions of thunderstorms affect farming in the south. Overall, the country lies mostly in the tropical/subtropical climatic zone, from desert to savanna.
Environment. Much of Sudan’s land is dry. Desert and semi-desert cover roughly three-quarters of the country, leaving only a narrow corridor of fertile land along the Nile and patches of savanna in the south and west. Sudan has few natural forests; most original woodland has been cleared over centuries for firewood and farming. This has contributed to desertification, especially in western regions like Darfur and Kordofan, where overgrazing and drought have degraded soils. The rainforest belt that once fringed southern Sudan (now mostly South Sudan) limits Sudan’s green cover to savanna and riverine vegetation. Environmental challenges include soil erosion from wind and flash floods, loss of wildlife habitat, and very scarce perennial water outside the Nile. Periodic droughts are common; famines in Sudan’s history (e.g. 1980s Darfur famine) often stem from failed rains.
Sudan does protect some areas: for example, Dinder National Park (adjacent to Ethiopia) preserves savanna and woodland with large mammals like elephants, giraffes and antelopes. Radom Forest Reserve in the west shelters forest-savanna species. Coastal Red Sea reefs and the islands near the old port town of Suakin hold coral and marine life. However, warfare and poaching have severely hurt wildlife, and few large herds remain. Climate change is expected to worsen water scarcity. In summary, Sudan’s environment is defined by its Nile-fed river valleys amid largely arid lands, and protecting its diminishing natural habitats is a growing concern.
Demographics. Sudan’s population is young and growing. As of the mid-2020s it stands on the order of 45–50 million people, roughly half of them under age 25. The population density is very uneven: the vast desert north is nearly empty, while most Sudanese live in the Nile Valley and a few southern and western regions. Only about one-third of Sudan’s people live in cities (Khartoum and its suburbs form the largest urban area, home to several million residents). Rural dwellers and pastoralists are the majority.
Sudan is ethnically and linguistically diverse. About 70–75% of Sudanese identify as “Arab” or “Arabic-speaking.” This group historically refers to many tribes in the Nile valley who speak Sudanese Arabic (a local dialect) as their first language. The rest of the population includes dozens of African-heritage groups: for example, the Beja of eastern Sudan (also called the Hadendowa or Bishari), the Fur of western Darfur, and numerous Nuba peoples in the Nuba Mountains of South Kordofan. Smaller Nilotic and Central African peoples (related to those in South Sudan and neighboring countries) also live in southern and border areas.
Arabic and English are official languages. Most Sudanese speak Sudanese Arabic in daily life; English remains widely used for higher education, business, and formerly was the language of government (English lost official status under a past regime but was reinstated in recent years). Many local languages survive: Nubian languages, Beja (a Cushitic language), Fur, and others. According to U.N. data, about 92% of the population speaks Arabic as a first or second language, reflecting its role as the lingua franca.
Religion is a central part of Sudanese identity. The vast majority (roughly 90%) of Sudanese are Sunni Muslims. Islam is deeply woven into public life; traditional Sufi orders and conservative laws have long coexisted, though the country declared itself a secular republic in 2020 (prior constitutions had adopted Islamic law). A small minority (around 5–10%) are Christian or practice indigenous religions. Christianity and animist faiths are most common among ethnic African tribes who were historically less Arabized, especially in the far south (now South Sudan). After secession, Sudan’s Christian communities are smaller but still present, mainly in Nuba Mountains and among Beja or other Afro-Arab groups who retained old beliefs. In cities and towns, you’ll hear vibrant Islamic call to prayer and see mosques everywhere. Literacy is relatively low, around 60–70%, with a gender gap (men typically literacy rates ~65–70%, women 50–60%). This reflects rural isolation and years of conflict.
Economy. Sudan is a developing economy with a large agricultural base and rich natural resources, but it remains one of the world’s poorest countries. Agriculture employs more than a third of people and contributes a significant portion of GDP. Major crops include sorghum, millet, wheat, groundnuts (peanuts), cotton (a long-time cash crop), and gum arabic (an export product). Livestock herding (camels, cattle, sheep) is widespread, especially in semi-desert areas, providing food and income. Large parts of farmland depend on rainfall (subsistence rainfed farming) or on limited irrigation from milling dams on the Nile and its tributaries (the Gezira Scheme, one of Africa’s oldest irrigation projects, is notable).
Since oil was first discovered in the 1970s, petroleum played an important role, but that changed when South Sudan took most of the oilfields. When South Sudan became independent in 2011, Sudan lost roughly 75–80% of its oil production. The remaining oil fields in northern Sudan still produce oil, but far below earlier levels. Today, gold mining has become Sudan’s biggest export earner. In fact, much of Sudan’s foreign currency income now comes from gold exports. (Sudan is one of Africa’s top gold producers.) Other natural resources are present but modest: small reserves of metals (iron ore, copper, gold, etc.) and hydropower potential from the Nile.
Manufacturing and industry are limited. Small factories produce textiles, cement, food products and chemicals, often for local markets. The economy suffers from decades of underinvestment, debt, and international sanctions (Sudan was under U.S. sanctions until 2017 due to past conflicts and human rights issues). Frequent conflict has repeatedly disrupted mining and agriculture.
In the 2010s and early 2020s, economic performance was weak. Inflation was high (often in the double digits), and the currency sank. The country’s Human Development Index rank is around 172 out of 189 nations, reflecting widespread poverty. Before 2019, Sudan relied on foreign aid and loans to stave off crisis. The transitional government that took power in 2019 managed to normalize some relations (removing global sanctions, rejoining institutions), but a military coup in 2021 and subsequent political turmoil set back these reforms.
By 2023 Sudan’s economy was in deep trouble. Civil conflict between the army and paramilitary factions triggered in April 2023 has devastated trade and infrastructure. According to World Bank reports, Sudan’s GDP slumped roughly 30% in 2023, inflation soared above 150%, and more than half the population faces acute shortages of food and services. Humanitarian crises (millions displaced inside Sudan or as refugees) further strain the economy. Nevertheless, Sudan still has opportunities: the country’s fertile Nile lands and red soil north of Khartoum are well-suited for farming if peace can be restored. Rebuilding irrigation and transport could significantly boost exports (traditionally to Egypt and Middle Eastern markets). Small industry and services (banking, telecom) have grown in past decades, but progress hinges on political stability.
Governance. Sudan is officially a republic. In practice its government has changed repeatedly through coups and revolutions. Modern Sudan gained independence from the British-backed condominium of Egypt and Britain in 1956. Since then, civilian and military leaders have alternated. For much of 1989–2019, Sudan was ruled by a strongman military dictatorship under General Omar al-Bashir, who imposed strict Islamic-oriented rule. Mass protests in 2018–2019 over living conditions led to the 2019 overthrow of Bashir by the armed forces. A transitional government—shared between civilian leaders and the military—then took charge, aiming to restore democracy.
Under the 2019–2023 transitional arrangement, Sudan was governed by a joint military–civilian Sovereign Council, alongside a cabinet and an elected legislative body (not fully realized). The intention was to hold elections by 2023 and move to full civilian rule. In practice, this process was cut short. In October 2021 Sudan’s military once more seized full power and detained civilian officials. Since then the military (led by General Abdel Fattah al-Burhan) has dominated politics. In 2022, a nominal agreement with some political parties attempted a return to transition, but power struggles continued. In April 2023, fierce fighting broke out between the Sudanese Armed Forces and the Rapid Support Forces (a powerful paramilitary group originating from Darfur). This conflict has effectively broken governance structures; each side controls parts of the country, and there is no unified civilian government.
Administratively, Sudan is divided into 18 states (wilayat). Khartoum serves as the seat of the federal government, while Omdurman and Bahri (north of Khartoum on the Nile) form a contiguous metropolitan area. The legal system has historically been based on Islamic law (sharia) and customary law. A key change occurred in 2020 when transitional authorities repealed many of Bashir’s Islamic-era laws, declaring Sudan a secular state where sharia formally applies only to Muslims.
Sudan is a member of the United Nations, the African Union (though it was suspended after coups), and the Arab League. It signed the Abraham Accords normalization with Israel in 2020. Despite political turmoil, Sudan has a long tradition of diplomatic ties with both African and Arab neighbors; it shares borders and ethnic ties with Egypt, Libya, Chad, South Sudan, Ethiopia and Eritrea.
History. The region of Sudan has been inhabited since prehistoric times. Ancient societies along the Nile South of Egypt built sophisticated civilizations: among these were the Kingdom of Kush (ca. 785 BC–350 AD), which at times controlled parts of Egypt and erected stone pyramids at sites like Meroe and El-Kurru. After Kush’s fall, medieval Nubian Christian kingdoms (Makuria, Nobatia, Alodia) persisted by the 6th–14th centuries. In the 14th century, Arab Bedouin tribes began migrating in, and by the 16th century much of Sudan’s culture had become linked to the Islamic world. Several sultanates arose, including the Funj Sultanate of Sennar (near the Blue Nile) and the Darfur Sultanate (western Sudan), which blended Islamic and African traditions.
In the 19th century, Sudan was drawn into the Ottoman-Egyptian empire under Egyptian ruler Muhammad Ali Pasha, who conquered the country in the 1820s. The Egyptian period saw the slave trade and some modernization, but in 1885 a Sudanese religious leader named Muhammad Ahmad al-Mahdi led a successful revolt and established a short-lived Mahdist state. The Mahdists held power until 1898, when an Anglo-Egyptian force (the so-called Fashoda Crisis episode) defeated them, making Sudan a condominium of Britain and Egypt. Under British rule (1899–1956), infrastructure like railroads and irrigation dams were built, but the north and south were governed separately, sowing seeds of later division.
Sudan became fully independent in 1956. The early post-independence years were politically turbulent, with rival civilian factions and army coups. In 1972 a brief reconciliation ended the first north–south civil war (1955–72). But under President Jaafar Nimeiry (1969–1985), Islamic law was imposed (1973–1985) and parts of the south rebelled again, igniting a second civil war (1983–2005). This war pitted the northern government against Southern rebels (mostly Christian and animist) for decades, causing massive casualties. Nimeiry was ousted in 1985; civilian rule returned briefly but in 1989 Colonel Omar al-Bashir seized power in another coup, installing an Islamist regime.
The Bashir era saw Sudan embroiled not only in the south’s war but also in a separate conflict in western Darfur starting in 2003. Ethnic tensions in Darfur, among sedentary farmers and Arabized nomads, led to a conflict so severe that international bodies labeled it a genocide. Simultaneously, peace talks with the southern rebels advanced. In 2005 a North–South Comprehensive Peace Agreement was signed, ending the long civil war on favorable terms. A provision of that deal called for a referendum, held in 2011, in which Southern Sudanese overwhelmingly voted to secede. On 9 July 2011, South Sudan became an independent country. Sudan lost the bulk of its oil reserves but gained the relief of ending a decades-long war.
The 2010s saw Sudan under Bashir rule isolated by Western sanctions and riven by internal unrest. In December 2013, the government lifted subsidies on fuel and bread, provoking widespread protests as prices soared. These economic grievances, along with calls for democracy, culminated in massive demonstrations in late 2018. In April 2019, after months of rallies, the military toppled Bashir. He was arrested and later tried by Sudanese courts on corruption and human rights charges. A transitional government of military and civilian leaders was formed (with Ugandan help), beginning a 39-month transition toward elections.
For a time, the transitional regime of 2019–2020 undertook reforms: it repealed repressive laws, released political prisoners, signed a peace deal with most rebel groups (including Darfur factions) in October 2020, and lifted the state of emergency. However, in October 2021 the military, led by General Burhan, dissolved the civilian government and detained civilian officials, citing unrest and disputes. Prime Minister Abdalla Hamdok was briefly held, then reinstated, but resigned in January 2022 as the crisis deepened.
In April 2023, tensions between the army (led by Burhan) and the paramilitary Rapid Support Forces (led by Mohamed Hamdan Dagalo, aka Hemedti) erupted into open warfare. The country has since been in civil war, fighting especially raging in Khartoum and Darfur. As a result of these conflicts, governance has broken down and life for many Sudanese has become severely constrained.
Culture. Sudan’s culture is an intricate blend of African and Arab heritage. The dominant religion of Islam shapes many customs: for instance, the traditional dress for men is the loose white robe called a jalabiya and a turban or cap, while women commonly wear long dresses and, in many communities, cover their hair. Hospitality is a strong virtue; serving tea to visitors and sharing communal meals are customary. Arabic music styles and Islamic festivals (Eid al-Fitr and Eid al-Adha) are celebrated nationwide. At the same time, Sudan has a rich tradition of indigenous African cultures. Folk music with drumming is especially vibrant among southern and western tribes. The Nuba Mountains region produces distinctive rhythmic dances and wrestling competitions during festivals.
Sudanese literature, a blend of Arabic and oral traditions, has gained international attention. The most famous Sudanese novel is “Season of Migration to the North” by Tayeb Salih (1966), which explores Sudanese identity. Storytelling and poetry are also highly valued; verses are often recited at social gatherings. While Arabic-language media is dominant, films and written works increasingly address Sudan’s diverse heritage and contemporary issues.
Cuisine reflects this mix. Staple foods include sorghum or millet porridge called kisra, often served with stews made of beans (ful), okra, or meat. Tea (usually sweetened and spiced with mint) is a common drink at all social occasions. In cities, you’ll find urban cafés and fast-food blending Arab and African cuisines (for example, falafel and shawarma from the Arab world alongside traditional ta’amiya (pearl millet fritters).
Sports and music are popular. Sudan was a founding member of the Confederation of African Football and won the African Cup of Nations in 1970. Today soccer remains the top sport, with many clubs and passionate fans. Dabke-like folk dances and Sufi-inspired drum circles can be seen at weddings and festivals. Museums in Khartoum and antiquities sites (for example, the pyramids of Meroe, Sudan’s heritage from ancient Kush) attract cultural tourism. Handicrafts – such as colorful Nubian pottery, beadwork of southern tribes, and handwoven cotton textiles – reflect the country’s cultural wealth. In short, Sudanese culture is marked by diversity: Islamic-pious majority culture interwoven with vibrant tribal customs and resilience born of centuries of rural lifestyle.
Education and Society. Public education has expanded only gradually. School enrollment and literacy remain lower than the African average. Many children work in family agriculture or herding. Religious and customary (tribal) leaders often play major roles in social life, especially in remote areas lacking strong government. In recent years, women’s rights have become a prominent issue: the 2019–21 government repealed some Islamic-era restrictions on women (for instance, decriminalizing apostasy and allowing women to travel without male permission), and women took part actively in the 2019 protests. Nevertheless, Sudanese society remains fairly conservative, especially outside the cities.
Significance and Future. Sudan stands at a strategic crossroads between sub-Saharan Africa and the Middle East. Historically, the Nile source and the Red Sea coast gave it trade importance. Today, Sudan’s fate matters for regional stability. Its fertile lands hold potential to help feed the region if agricultural reform succeeds. Sudan’s citizens are often highly educated by African standards, and an emerging telecom and services sector shows potential in cities. However, political instability and conflict have repeatedly stalled development.
In summary, modern Sudan is a nation of wide deserts and blue rivers, of ancient pyramids and vibrant tribal villages. Its people speak Arabic (and dozens of other languages), pray mainly in mosques, and farm where the Nile waters fall. After decades of turmoil, Sudan’s future depends on whether its diverse population can achieve peace and harness the country’s rich natural endowments — from gold in the soil to human capital — for stability and growth.
Further Reading. For more information on Sudan, consult country profiles by the World Bank or UN, or history texts such as “A History of Modern Sudan” by Peter Woodward (Cambridge), and travelogues detailing Sudan’s landscapes and cultures. The Encyclopaedia Britannica entry on Sudan provides an up-to-date overview; publications by Sudanese scholars (e.g. Leif O. Manger’s writings on religion or Julie Flint’s work on Darfur) also give in-depth context. International news archives (BBC, Al Jazeera, Reuters) chronicle recent developments in Sudan’s politics and society.