Sri Lanka
| Sri Lanka | |
|---|---|
| |
| Type | Sovereign state (island nation) |
| Key terms | geography & climate, economy & governance, history & society |
| Related | India, Maldives, South Asia |
| Examples | Colombo, Kandy, Sigiriya |
| Domain | Countries, Asia |
| Wikidata | Q854 |
Sri Lanka is an island nation in South Asia. It lies in the Indian Ocean off the southeastern coast of India – only about 20 miles (40 km) from the Indian mainland at its closest point (across Palk Strait). The country covers roughly 65,600 square kilometers (25,300 square miles) and has a population of about 22 million people. The official name is the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka, and it was known as Ceylon during British colonial rule until 1972. Sri Lanka’s capital is Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte (Colombo is the largest city and commercial center). The island’s strategic position at the crossroads of Indian Ocean trade routes has shaped its history and economy. Sri Lanka’s name in ancient languages (Sinhala as “Lankadeepa” or Sanskrit “Tamraparni”) means the “resplendent island,” reflecting its rich cultural heritage and natural wealth.
Geography and climate
Sri Lanka has a diverse and varied terrain packed into a relatively small area. The island’s centerpiece is the Central Highlands – a rugged plateau and mountain region in the south-central portion. These highlands rise to over 2,500 meters at Pidurutalagala (the country’s highest peak) and include forests, tea plantations, and cloud forests. To the north of the highlands lie broad plains of lower elevation (around 30–200 meters above sea level), including dry flatlands and rolling hills; to the south and west the land slopes down in a series of escarpments and plateaus. Encircling the island is a coastal lowland belt (mostly under 30 meters elevation), featuring sandy beaches, lagoons, reef-fringed shores and some limestone cliffs (notably on the Jaffna Peninsula in the north). The northeast and southwest coasts have rocky bays and small natural harbors – Trincomalee Harbor in the northeast is world-famous for its natural deep-water anchorage, and partially sheltered Galle Harbor in the southwest served colonial trade. In total, Sri Lanka has some 1,620 km of coastline.
A tropical climate prevails across the island. Because Sri Lanka straddles roughly 6°–10° North latitude, temperatures are generally warm year-round, with little seasonal variation at sea level. Average annual temperatures are around 26–28 °C, but local climate varies dramatically with altitude and season. In the highlands (e.g. city of Nuwara Eliya), night-time frost can occur and daytime highs average about 20°C. In coastal and lowland areas, daytime temperatures often reach the low 30s °C (occasionally up to 35–37°C), while night-time lows are in the mid-20s.
Rainfall is dominated by two monsoon seasons and two milder intermonsoon periods. The southwest (Yala) monsoon blows from about May into October, bringing moisture off the Indian Ocean; the south and western slopes of the Central Highlands and the southwest plains receive very heavy rain during this time (some highlands areas get over 2400 mm in a season). In contrast, the northeast and eastern side of the island lie mostly in the rain shadow of those mountains during the southwest monsoon and remain relatively dry. The northeast (Maha) monsoon comes from December through March, when winds blow from over the Bay of Bengal and hit the northeast and eastern regions of Sri Lanka. This monsoon dumps rain on the northern plains and eastern hills (up to about 1250 mm in the wettest spots) while the southwest coast and central hills are relatively drier. Between the monsoons (October–November and March–April) there are intermonsoonal periods with occasional thunderstorms and scattered rain throughout the island. The result is a pattern of distinct wet zones and dry zones on the island. The high Central Highlands and adjacent southwestern quarter of the island (known as the “wet zone”) receive abundant rain year-round and support tropical rainforests, whereas the northern, eastern and far southern coasts form a “dry zone” (receiving as little as 60–120 cm of rain annually).
Sri Lanka’s rivers originate in the Central Highlands. They flow radially outward toward the sea, carving out many valleys and gorges. The longest river is the Mahaweli Ganga (about 335 km long), which drains a large portion of the eastern highlands before emptying into the Indian Ocean on the east coast. There are some 16 rivers longer than 100 km; others are short, steep streams that form waterfalls in the hills. Many of these rivers have been dammed or channeled into irrigation tanks (“wewas”) as part of traditional and modern water management for agriculture.
Demographics
Sri Lanka’s roughly 22 million people are multi-ethnic and multi-religious. The largest ethnic group, the Sinhalese, make up about three-quarters of the population. The Sinhalese are largely Buddhist (Theravada tradition) and speak Sinhala, an Indo-Aryan language. The largest minority is the Sri Lankan Tamils (around 11%), an ethnic group of mostly Hindu religion (some Tamils are Tamil-speaking Christians). There is also a sizable community of Sri Lankan Moors (about 9%), who are mostly Muslim and speak Tamil or Sinhala. Indian Tamils (about 4%; descendants of workers brought from South India for colonial plantations) and smaller ethnic groups (Burghers of mixed ancestry, Malays, indigenous Vedda people) make up the rest.
The official languages are Sinhala and Tamil; Sinhala predominates in most of the country, while Tamil is common in the northeast and among Muslims. English is widely used in government, business and education, serving as a link language between communities.
Religion follows ethnic lines: approximately 70% of Sri Lankans are Buddhist (almost all of them Sinhalese), about 12% Hindu (mostly Tamil), around 10% Muslim, and 7–8% Christian (a mix of Catholic and Protestant, among Sinhalese, Tamils, and others). Religious and ethnic identity have shaped Sri Lankan history and politics. In general, people in Sri Lanka enjoy religious freedom under the secular constitution, and major festivals of all faiths are celebrated nationally. Buddhist temples and Hindu kovils, mosques and churches are common sights in towns and villages.
Sri Lanka has relatively high social indicators for the region. A majority of citizens are literate (around 90–92% literacy), and life expectancy at birth is high (around 75–77 years). The population is predominantly rural, though about 15–20% live in cities or towns; the largest urban area is the Colombo metro region on the west coast. In recent decades population growth has slowed, reflecting lower birth rates, and the country has an aging population. Many working-age Sri Lankans also live abroad or migrate for work (notably to the Middle East, Europe, and Asia), which has created a large overseas diaspora and brings in significant remittance income.
Economy
Sri Lanka has a mixed economy that has diversified beyond its traditional agricultural base. Following independence, the economy was dominated by tea, rubber and coconut plantations (colonially grown and exported). Over time, industrial and service sectors expanded. Prior to the recent crisis, the sectoral GDP share was roughly 60% services, 30% industry (manufacturing and construction), and under 10% agriculture.
Key industries and exports still include textile/apparel manufacturing (Sri Lanka’s largest export by value), tea (world-famous Ceylon tea), rubber products, coconut (copra and coir), spices (cinnamon etc.), precious stones, and increasingly IT and business services. Agriculture, while a smaller part of GDP, remains important for rural livelihoods; about one-third of workers and nearly half of households depend on farming and related activities. Rice is the staple food crop, and around 30–35% of land is under some form of cultivation (rice paddies, coconut groves, tea and rubber plantations).
The services sector is led by tourism, transportation, banking, and retail trade. Tourism has historically been a major income source (Sri Lanka’s scenic nature and cultural heritage draw tourists worldwide) – before the 2020 pandemic, tourism accounted for around 10–12% of GDP. Financial services and telecommunications have grown as well. Foreign employment and remittances also form a significant part of the economy, with millions of Sri Lankans working abroad and sending money home (often equal to a quarter or more of export income in recent years).
In the past few years Sri Lanka has faced serious economic challenges. After years of high spending, heavy borrowing and disruptions (including the 2019 Easter bombings and the COVID-19 downturn), Sri Lanka encountered a full-blown balance-of-payments crisis in 2022. The country’s foreign reserve shortage led to defaults on international debt for the first time in its history, and severe shortages of fuel, medicine and other essentials. Inflation skyrocketed (peaking around 60% in late 2022) and poverty levels rose sharply. This crisis triggered mass protests that forced President Gotabaya Rajapaksa to resign in July 2022.
Following the crisis, Sri Lanka negotiated a large loan package with the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and other lenders. By 2023–24 there were signs of stabilization: inflation was brought down (to single digits by mid-2024), and GDP growth turned positive again (estimated around 2–3% in 2023) The government implemented austerity measures, tax reforms and structural changes. However, the economy remains under pressure. Public debt is very high (on the order of 60–80% of GDP), and much of it needs restructuring. As of 2024, GDP per capita (nominal) is about US$4,000–5,000. Poverty has risen but was starting to improve slowly under the new programs.
Going forward, Sri Lanka aims to boost export industries and attract foreign investment to restart growth. Traditional earnings sources like garments, tea, rubber and tourism are being rebuilt (garment and tea export revenues recovered in 2024) Infrastructure development (major port, highway, and energy projects) is also a focus. The economy’s long-term potential is considered moderate, with reforms and political stability seen as key to recovery.
Government and politics
Sri Lanka is a democratic republic with a strong presidency. It is officially called the Democratic Socialist Republic, although in practice it follows a parliamentary system with both a President and a Prime Minister. The President (currently Anura Kumara Dissanayake, who took office in 2024) is head of state and government, directly elected by the people for a six-year term. The President appoints a Cabinet and government ministers, and also serves as Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces.
Legislative power is vested in a unicameral Parliament of 225 members. These members are elected for five-year terms by proportional representation from multi-member districts. The ruling party or coalition’s leader in Parliament becomes Prime Minister (the deputy head of government). After the 2024 elections, Dr. Harini Amarasuriya was appointed Prime Minister; she leads the National People's Power alliance in Parliament. The Parliament can pass laws, levy taxes, and holds the President and government accountable.
Sri Lanka also has administrative subdivisions: it is divided into 9 provinces (each with its own elected council) and 25 districts. These provincial councils were created after the civil war (1983–2009) to devolve some powers, especially to Tamil-majority areas. Local government (municipalities and councils) exists in cities and rural areas as well.
Politically, Sri Lanka has a multi-party system. For decades, politics was dominated by two families and their parties: the center-right United National Party (UNP) and the more left-leaning Sri Lanka Freedom Party (SLFP), both originally splintered from independence-era leaders. In recent years, new coalitions and parties have emerged. Ethnic and religious issues have strongly influenced politics, most notably during the civil war era. National People’s Power (a leftist coalition) won the presidency in 2024, marking a new political alignment.
Sri Lanka’s legal system is based on a mixture of English common law and older laws (Roman-Dutch law and Kandyan law), with an independent judiciary headed by a Supreme Court. The constitution provides for fundamental rights (language, religion, assembly, etc.) but there have been debates about curbs on press freedom and executive power.
On the international stage, Sri Lanka is an active contributor to the United Nations and is a member of the Commonwealth of Nations, Non-Aligned Movement, SAARC (South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation), and the WTO. It generally maintains friendly relations with both India and other regional powers, balancing ties between East and West.
History
Sri Lanka has a very long history of human settlement and kingdom-building. Archaeological evidence shows people living on the island tens of thousands of years ago. Written chronicles (the “Mahavamsa” and others) record the island’s legendary and early history, such as the 6th century BC arrival of Prince Vijaya from northern India and the founding of the Sinhalese kingdoms. By the 3rd century BC, Buddhism arrived (brought by an emissary of Emperor Ashoka of India) and soon became the dominant religion of the Sinhalese kingdom of Anuradhapura. Over the next many centuries, a succession of Sinhalese kings ruled from cities like Anuradhapura and later Polonnaruwa, building vast irrigation works and Buddhist monuments. During the medieval period, South Indian Tamil kingdoms invaded and at times ruled parts of the island, while other Sinhalese dynasties (e.g. Kandy) controlled the interior.
Islamic traders also visited the island for centuries, and a small Muslim trading community (the Moor caste) developed along the coasts. Buddhism remained central to Sinhalese identity, while Tamil Hindus predominated in the northern and eastern coasts. These two major communities coexisted, but social tensions were latent; colonial rule increased communal inequalities.
Starting in the early 16th century, European colonial powers arrived. The Portuguese took coastal areas in 1505–1658, establishing forts and Catholic missions (renaming the island “Ceilão”). They were expelled by the Dutch (1658–1796), who took control of the coasts and established plantations. In 1796 Britain seized Sri Lanka (then Ceylon) from the Dutch during the French Revolutionary Wars and formally consolidated control by 1815 with the fall of the Kandyan kingdom. Under British rule (19th–mid 20th century), the island’s economy was transformed by plantation agriculture: coffee (and later, after a blight, tea) and rubber became major exports. The British also introduced a Western-style administration, public education (in English and local languages), and immigration (bringing Tamil laborers from India for plantations).
After World War II a growing independence movement freed Ceylon from British rule on 4 February 1948. The first decades of independence saw political dominance by Sinhalese leaders and a policy of socialism and nationalist identity. In 1956, the government made Sinhala the only official language (displacing English and marginalizing Tamil), and declared Buddhism as having a “foremost place” in state affairs. These measures angered the large Tamil minority and set off a cycle of protests and legislative responses. Periodic anti-Tamil riots occurred (notably ethnic violence in 1958 and 1977). In 1971, an armed uprising by communist insurgents (the JVP) in rural areas was crushed by the government, indicating domestic unrest across ethnic lines. In 1972 Sri Lanka formally became a republic and changed its name from Ceylon.
In 1978 a new constitution introduced an executive presidency. The island’s politics split between two main parties (the pro-Western United National Party and the socialist Sri Lanka Freedom Party, often allied with rival families). Tensions with Tamil separatists escalated. In July 1983, government security forces ambushed and killed 13 Tamil soldiers, triggering widespread anti-Tamil riots in Colombo (“Black July”) and the start of a decades-long civil war. The main Tamil rebel group, the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE, or “Tamil Tigers”), fought to create an independent Tamil state in the north and east. The Sri Lankan government and LTTE fought intermittently through the 1980s and 1990s; the conflict included Indian military intervention (1987–1990) to protect Tamils, as well as brutal humanitarian crises and alleged war crimes on both sides.
In 2002–2006 there was a fragile ceasefire, but conflict resumed and intensified under President Mahinda Rajapaksa (elected 2005). By 2009 the government launched a final offensive. In May 2009 the Sri Lankan military defeated the LTTE, ending the war. This brought relief to much of the country, but also criticism over civilian casualties in the war’s last phase and demands for justice and reconciliation.
The post-war era (2010s) focused on reconstruction, constitutional reform, and economic challenges. International attention remained on human rights issues from the war. In 2015, a surprise election catapulted Maithripala Sirisena (an ex-president’s aide) to the presidency in a coalition with the UNP party, defeating Rajapaksa. That year, the government curtailed some executive powers and promised anti-corruption measures. In April 2019, the country suffered terrorist attacks (suicide bombings on churches and hotels) carried out by an Islamic extremist group, killing over 250 people of various nationalities. This shocked the mostly Buddhist nation and strained the economy and politics.
In November 2019, Gotabaya Rajapaksa (brother of Mahinda) was elected president, running on a security and nationalist platform. However, by 2022 Sri Lanka’s economy was in deep crisis. Widespread shortages of fuel, medicine and food sparked mass street protests (the “Aragalaya” movement) demanding the Rajapaksa government’s resignation. President Gotabaya fled the country in July 2022 and eventually resigned. Parliament elected Ranil Wickremesinghe (a veteran politician) as president to complete the term.
Under President Wickremesinghe and then-President Anura Kumara Dissanayake (elected in 2024), Sri Lanka sought to stabilize the economy with IMF aid and reforms. The 2024 elections brought a new government led by a leftist coalition, reflecting popular demands for change. As of 2025, Sri Lanka is navigating post-crisis recovery, with its long history of cultural diversity and political resilience shaping ongoing reforms.
Culture
Sri Lankan culture reflects its majority Sinhalese heritage as well as the contributions of Tamil, Muslim, Christian and colonial communities. Languages and arts: The Sinhala and Tamil languages each have rich literary and artistic traditions. Ancient Sinhalese literature (in Pali/Sinhala) and Tamil literature (some dating back over a millennium) survive in folklore, poetry and religious texts. Traditional performing arts include the famous Kandyan dance (a stylized form of dance-drumming from the central hills), low-country drums and dances, folk songs, and puppet and mask dances. Sri Lankan painting and sculpture were historically tied to religious life: ancient Buddhist mural temples (like those in Dambulla and Sigiriya) and Hindu kovils still preserve galleries of sacred art. Colonial and modern Sri Lanka has also produced poets, writers and visual artists in Sinhala, Tamil and English.
Religious and folk traditions: Buddhism is a major influence on national culture. Festivals like Vesak (celebrating Buddha’s birth/illumination) are marked by colorful lanterns and public charity. Hindus celebrate Thai Pongal (harvest festival) and Deepavali (festival of lights). Muslims observe Eid al-Fitr and al-Adha. Sri Lankan Catholics and Protestants have holidays like Christmas. An important national festival is the Kandy Esala Perahera (July–August), a grand procession in Kandy with drummers, dancers and decorated elephants, honoring the sacred Tooth Relic of the Buddha.
Cuisine: Sri Lankan food is closely related to South Indian culinary traditions but with local variations. Meals center on rice and curry – rice served with an array of vegetable, fish, meat or lentil curries. Coconut is used extensively (in milk, oil and shredded form) giving a distinct flavor. Popular items include hoppers (fermented rice flour pancakes), string hoppers (steamed rice noodle mats), and spicy sambol condiments (like coconut sambol). Seafood, tropical fruits (mango, jackfruit, coconut), and spices (cinnamon, cardamom, pepper) feature in the diet. Because of the tea industry, “Ceylon tea” (often served with milk and sugar) is a cultural icon. Street food such as kottu roti (chopped pancake stir-fry) and samosas are common snacks.
Dress and social life: Traditional dress includes the sari (worn by many women) and the sarong or national dress (worn by many men). However, western-style clothing is also widely used, especially in cities. Music ranges from folk drumming to modern pop. Cricket is the most popular sport on the island; the national team’s World Cup victory in 1996 is still celebrated. Other sports include rugby, netball and athletics. Education and scholarship are highly valued in Sri Lankan society – the country historically established free education and has high literacy, leading to a well-educated population and significant emigration of skilled workers.
Heritage and tourism: Sri Lanka’s archaeology and architecture reflect its varied history. Ancient sites (UNESCO World Heritage) such as the ruined capitals of Anuradhapura and Polonnaruwa, the rock fortress of Sigiriya, and the Cave Temple of Dambulla are major cultural attractions. Colonial-era architecture (Dutch forts in Galle, British colonial buildings in Kandy and Colombo) also survive. The blending of Malay, Burgher (Eurasian), Tamil and Sinhalese customs has made Sri Lankan society pluralistic.
In contemporary culture, Sri Lankans value family and community; village communities often center on local temples or mosques. Holidays and seasons (like the Sinhala-Tamil New Year in April) follow the lunar calendar and traditional agricultural cycles. The arts continue to be supported by government and private patronage, and Sri Lankan films (in Sinhala and Tamil) have a local audiences as well as diasporic followings. Overall, Sri Lanka’s culture is marked by its religious diversity, its blend of South Asian and colonial influences, and the importance of history and nature in daily life.
Environment and biodiversity
Despite its small size, Sri Lanka is one of the world’s biodiversity hotspots. Its ecological diversity ranges from humid tropical rainforests to arid scrublands and wetlands. The island’s six climatic zones (arid, dry, intermediate, wet, montane wet, and montane intermediate) support many distinct habitats. In the wet southwest and central highlands lie tropical evergreen rainforests (some cloud forests above 1,500 m); on the dry northern plains and southeast there are thorny scrub and dry monsoon forest. River floodplains support irrigated paddy fields and freshwater marshes. Coastal regions have mangrove swamps and sandy beaches with embedded coral reefs. Sri Lanka has over 1,300 species of marine fish and more than 200 species of reef-building corals around its coral fringe.
The island’s biological richness is outstanding. Of around 3,000 flowering plants found in Sri Lanka, roughly a quarter are endemic (found nowhere else). Among vertebrates, about 43% of native species (excluding marine forms) are endemic – especially high among amphibians, freshwater fish and reptiles Famous animals include the Sri Lankan elephant (smaller than the African elephant and one of the highest-density elephant populations in Asia), the Sri Lankan leopard (a subspecies unique to the island), the purple-faced langur (monkey) and many colorful birds (like the peafowl and junglefowl). Forests shelter elephants, leopards, sloth bears, sambar deer, monkeys and over 400 bird species. The island is also home to rare species of amphibians (like the tiny shrub frogs) and reptiles (e.g. the endemic Sri Lankan pit viper).
To protect this natural wealth, Sri Lanka has set aside over 25% of its land as protected areas including national parks and sanctuaries. Famous parks include Yala National Park (southeast, for elephants and leopards), Wilpattu National Park (northwest, for waterfowl and large mammals), and Sinharaja Forest Reserve (southwest, a UNESCO World Heritage rainforest for plants and birds). The mountain peak and cloud forest at Horton Plains (also a protected area) and the Knuckles Range in the north-central highlands harbor many endemic plants. Wetland sanctuaries (Muthurajawela near Colombo, Bundala in the south) protect migratory birds and coastal ecosystems. Coastal reserves and sanctuaries aim to conserve coral reefs, sea grass beds and turtle nesting beaches.
Sri Lanka’s environment faces challenges from human activity. Once heavily forested, by the late 20th century closed-canopy forest covered only about one-fifth of the land (down from roughly 50% in the mid-20th century) Large-scale plantation agriculture (tea, rubber, cinnamon) historically replaced much forest, and small-scale clearing for paddy or development continued. Deforestation rates have slowed under conservation measures, but forest cover remains relatively low. Wetlands and swamps have been drained for farming or urban development, and coastal mangroves have declined. These losses of habitat are the greatest threats to Sri Lanka’s wildlife. Human-wildlife conflict has grown: elephants and leopards increasingly come into contact with farming communities as their habitats shrink. Over 14,000 incidents of human-elephant conflict were recorded in 2010–2019 farmers’ crops are raided by wild monkeys, boars and peafowl, and rural communities occasionally face attacks by crocodiles or venomous snakes in streams.
Pollution is another concern. As the economy grew in recent decades, industrial and urban waste have burdened some rivers and the densely populated southwest (Colombo region). Marine pollution (garbage drifting into the sea) and coastal development threaten coral reefs and shorebirds. On the positive side, Sri Lanka has begun strict measures against plastic waste (for example, single-use plastic bans implemented in cities since the 2010s) and promotes eco-tourism in its parks. The government also runs breeding programs and veterinary centers for endangered animals (elephants, leopards, turtles).
Climate change poses a new challenge. Sri Lanka is vulnerable to rising sea levels (low-lying coastal areas and small islands), as well as more extreme weather. The monsoon rains, while vital for agriculture, also bring flooding and landslides, especially when catchment forests are degraded. The 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami – though not a climate event – was a stark reminder of the coast’s exposure; Sri Lanka suffered about 35,000 fatalities in that disaster. Scientists warn that changing rainfall patterns and higher temperatures could affect rice harvests, water availability, and habitats for many species.
In summary, Sri Lanka’s environment is exceptionally rich but fragile. Conservation of forests, wildlife and coasts has become a national priority. Protected areas, laws like the Wildlife Conservation Act, and community-based projects all seek to preserve biodiversity. Sri Lanka’s guests and citizens alike treasure its natural heritage – elephants, forests, and reefs – even as the nation works to balance development with environmental stewardship.