Somalia

Somalia
Type	Country
Key terms	geography & climate, demographics, economy & governance
Related	Horn of Africa, Mogadishu, Somali language
Examples	Somaliland, Puntland, Jubaland
Domain	Geography, Politics, Culture
Wikidata	Q1045

Somalia is a country in the Horn of Africa, on the continent’s easternmost tip. Bordered by Djibouti to the northwest, Ethiopia to the west, Kenya to the south, the Gulf of Aden to the north, and the Indian Ocean to the east, it covers about 637,000 km^2 The capital and largest city is Mogadishu. Somalia’s population is on the order of 20 million people, almost all of whom are ethnic Somalis speaking the Somali language. Native Somali clans form the dominant social structure, and nearly the entire population practices Islam (predominantly Sunni) Somali and Arabic are official languages Italian and English are also used in business and education. Somalia remains one of the world’s poorest countries, with an economy largely based on livestock and agriculture though as a fragile state it depends heavily on foreign aid and remittances. It is organized nominally as a federal republic (bicameral parliament with a president and prime minister)

Geography and Climate

Somalia lies on the Horn of Africa, straddling both tropical and subtropical zones. Its landscape is mostly flat or gently undulating; the north rises into arid mountains (the Karkaar range) reaching about 2,460 m at Mount Shimbiris The central and southern areas are plateau and plains, with two perennial rivers (the Juba and Shabelle) creating the only moderately fertile zones in the southwest With about 3,025 km of coastline along two seas, Somalia has one of Africa’s longest coastlines. This gives it a strategic location at the entrance to the Red Sea (Bab el-Mandeb) and Suez Canal.

The climate is generally hot and dry. Much of Somalia is desert or semi-desert: semi-arid savanna covers most of the country except some higher hills Rainfall is unpredictable and sparse across the land: most regions average less than 500 mm per year, with much of the northeast receiving only 50–150 mm annually There are two rainy seasons (roughly April–June and October–November) and two dry seasons. Temperatures can be extreme – summer highs commonly reach 40–45 °C in lowlands, while some interior highlands may drop near freezing in winter Much of Somalia is too dry for crops except along the river valleys; over half the territory is used as grassland or shrubland for grazing.

Demographics

Somalia’s population is almost entirely Somali, a Cushitic-speaking ethnic group organized into clans and sub-clans. Estimates of the total population vary (roughly 19–21 million), in part because of high mobility and refugee flows A significant share of Somalis are nomadic or semi-nomadic pastoralists herding goats, sheep and camels across the arid lands. Urban dwellers make up about half of the population, with major cities including Mogadishu (about 2.2 million in 2024) Hargeisa, Bosaso and Baidoa. Life expectancy and income levels are low; Somalia consistently ranks at the bottom of UN human-development indices. Clan identity remains an important social factor, influencing politics and social organization.

The Somali language (a Cushitic tongue related to Oromo and Afar) is the principal language of education and media, officially written in a modified Latin script since 1972. Arabic is also an official language and is widely used in religious education; some Somalis know Italian (from colonial times) and English. By religion, virtually all Somalis are Muslim (nearly 100% Sunni) Traditional culture emphasizes oral poetry, storytelling and strong kinship ties. Somali women and men wear colorful traditional dress (the dirac and macawis, respectively), and family and clan elders (following xeer, a customary clan-based legal system) often play social and judicial roles.

Economy

Somalia’s economy is underdeveloped and informal, heavily based on pastoralism and small-scale farming. Livestock (camels, cattle, sheep and goats) provide the bulk of national output and exports, primarily to Gulf countries. Traditional farming along the Juba and Shabelle rivers produces bananas, maize and other subsistence crops. Formal agriculture beyond these riverine areas is limited by drought. According to UN data, agriculture accounted for about 60% of Somalia’s gross value-added (GDP) as of the mid-2010s Industry is minimal (under 10% of GDP), mainly processing of local products, telecommunications and light manufacturing; roads, ports and electricity infrastructure are severely inadequate after years of conflict.

Official GDP was only about $10.4billion(currentUS$ ) in 2024 with per capita output under $600 – among the lowest in the world. Poverty is widespread, and Somalia depends heavily on foreign assistance. Economic growth has been moderately positive in recent years (around 3–4% in 2023–24) as relative stability has returned to some areas However, outlook is fragile. World Bank analysis notes that growth in 2024 was supported by better rainfall and slow inflation, but that declining foreign aid and climate risks are dampening future prospects Somalia is fragile economically: it only recently reached the completion point of the IMF/World Bank “Heavily Indebted Poor Countries” program, a major debt-relief milestone.

Two features underscore Somalia’s economy. First, remittances from the large Somali diaspora are a critical source of income – about 15–17% of GDP according to recent estimates These funds flow privately into households, funding food, education and small business. Second, the public sector collects almost no domestic revenue. The national budget barely covers its own operations, making the government heavily reliant on international aid and loans. In 2024, prudent fiscal management produced a small budget surplus, but only because foreign grants were counted as current receipts Long-term stability will require diversifying beyond pastoralism and remittances: the government’s development vision emphasizes nascent sectors like fisheries, energy, agribusiness and technology, but deep insecurity and poor infrastructure remain obstacles.

Governance and Politics

Somalia’s official system is a federal parliamentary republic under a provisional 2012 constitution. The Federal Government of Somalia (based in Mogadishu) comprises a President (head of state), a Prime Minister (head of government) and a bicameral parliament. The parliament has an Upper House (Senate) and a Lower House called the House of the People (275 seats) Members of parliament are not elected by one-person-one-vote but chosen through clan-based and state assembly mechanisms. The country first successfully organized multi-party elections in decades in 2016 and has had a few leadership turnovers since (including a new president in 2022). In March 2024 the parliament approved constitutional changes to streamline elections and strengthen executive authority, reflecting ongoing debates about governance.

Despite the nominal federal framework, central authority remains weak. Somalia is still emerging from collapse: large areas of southern and central Somalia are governed by local clan administrations or by the Islamist insurgent group al-Shabaab (an al-Qaeda affiliate). The government’s writ is strongest around Mogadishu and in the north. Two regions remain effectively outside Mogadishu’s control: Somaliland and Puntland. After the central state’s collapse in 1991, the northwestern former British Somaliland unilaterally declared the independent Republic of Somaliland (though it has no international recognition). Somaliland has its own functioning government, currency and democratic elections, making it relatively stable. The northeastern region of Puntland established a self-governing state within Somalia (declared 1998); Puntland maintains its own security forces and revenue but stops short of seeking full independence Other federal member states (such as Jubaland, Southwest State, Galmudug and Hirshabelle) have been formed to share power among major clans, but periodic disputes and power struggles over seat allocation are common.

Security in Somalia continues to be a major challenge. Al-Shabaab holds rural areas and occasionally strikes in cities. Between 2007 and 2022, African Union peacekeepers (the AMISOM mission) helped the Somali government maintain security; since October 2022 this responsibility has been taken over by an African-led Transition Mission. Federal forces, supported by international funding and training, are gradually expanding their reach, though stability remains fragile. Non-state militias (often clan-based) are rife. Corruption and weak civil institutions hinder delivery of services, and nearly all government spending depends on foreign support.

History

Somalia has a long and complex history. In antiquity, the region (often identified with the legendary “Land of Punt” in Egyptian records) was known for trade in frankincense, myrrh and livestock. By the early Middle Ages, Arab and Persian merchants established trading ports along the Somali coast, fostering Islamization. Inland, various Somali dynasties (such as the Ajuran Sultanate) arose from the 13th century onward, governing the Horn. Mogadishu became a renowned medieval port on trade routes to India and China.

In the late 19th century the European colonial “Scramble for Africa” divided Somali-inhabited lands. Britain occupied Somaliland in the north (from 1884) and later Italian Somaliland in the south. Japanese troops briefly occupied the south during World War II before the Allies took over. After the war, Italian Somaliland became a United Nations Trust Territory under Italian administration, while British Somaliland remained under British rule. On June 26 and July 1, 1960, the two territories prepared for independence. British Somaliland first declared independence as the State of Somaliland (June 26), and on July 1 the two administrations united to form the Somali Republic.

The newly independent Somali Republic borrowed Western-style democracy. Elections were held in 1964 and 1969. However, politics was fractured by clan rivalries and border disputes (notably with Ethiopia over the Ogaden region). On October 21, 1969, Major General Mohamed Siad Barre seized power in a coup, dissolving the parliament and establishing a military socialist regime. Under Barre’s rule Somalia pursued a nationalist and socialist path for 22 years Barre tried to modernize society and suppress clan identities, but his rule became increasingly authoritarian during the economically troubled 1970s–80s. The regime ultimately collapsed in 1991 after a civil insurgency; Barre was ousted that January, triggering widespread state collapse.

The overthrow of the central government in 1991 led to decades of turmoil. Rival clan militias fought to control Mogadishu and the countryside, precipitating a catastrophic famine in 1992 and prompting a series of international interventions. In 1993, a UN peacekeeping mission (with U.S. and other troops) attempted to restore order, but withdrew in 1995 following the “Black Hawk Down” incident in Mogadishu. In the north, the former British protectorate region declared itself the independent Republic of Somaliland (1991), establishing relative peace. In 2000 the Transitional National Government (TNG) was formed in Djibouti in an attempt at reconciliation; it was succeeded by the Transitional Federal Government (TFG) in 2004. During this time, a series of clan conferences and peace pacts gradually built up interim institutions.

By the mid-2000s a rival Islamist movement, the Islamic Courts Union (ICU), had emerged and briefly regained control of much of southern Somalia (including Mogadishu). Ethiopia, supporting the TFG, invaded in late 2006 and routed the ICU. In the ensuing chaos, the more radical militia al-Shabaab (literally “The Youth”) became dominant in rural areas. From late 2006 onward, al-Shabaab fought insurgently against the TFG and Ethiopian forces. The African Union Mission in Somalia (AMISOM) was deployed in 2007 to bolster the government; by the 2010s it had helped the weak central government (renamed the Federal Government in 2012) reclaim several major towns. In August 2012 a National Constituent Assembly approved a provisional constitution, formally ending the transitional period. President Hassan Sheikh Mohamud was elected that year, and later in 2017, marking Somalia’s first peaceful transfer of power by electoral vote. In March 2022, Mohamed Abdullahi “Farmaajo” was succeeded by a second term for Mohamud, reflecting a strengthening (if still fragile) democratic process.

Nonetheless, much of Somalia remains unsettled. Terror attacks by al-Shabaab persist, centered on Mogadishu and other towns. The country’s institutions are gradually rebuilding, but the legacy of decades of conflict means governance is uneven. Piracy off the Somali coast, which peaked around 2011, has largely been suppressed by international naval patrols and local initiatives by 2020. In recent years Somalia has worked to reintegrate into the international community, including joining initiatives like the World Bank’s lending programs and completing debt relief.

Culture

Somali culture reflects its nomadic heritage, Islamic faith and clan-based society. Family and clan networks are key organizing principles; loyalty to one’s clan lineage (patrilineal) often guides social identity and customary law (known as xeer). Despite frequent mention of clans in politics, Somali culture places high value on hospitality, oral poetry and egalitarian values. Poetry and song are especially esteemed: Somalis are sometimes called a “nation of poets” due to the central role of poetic recitation in social gatherings and political discourse.

Islam is woven into daily life and culture. Nearly all Somalis follow the Shafi‘i school of Sunni Islam, and religious holidays shape social calendars (for example, Eid al-Fitr and Eid al-Adha are major celebrations). Islamic law influences family and community practices, though secular law also exists. Traditional dress and cuisine reflect a mix of Mediterranean and Arabian influences: meals often revolve around staples like rice and flatbread served with stews; milk, meat and camel products are common due to pastoralism. Somali cuisine also includes imported items such as pasta and mahogany from historical trade.

Modern Somali culture has been affected by upheaval. The Somali script in Latin alphabet was introduced nationwide in 1972 (before then, Somali was written in Arabic script or indigenous scripts). Literacy efforts expanded schooling, but decades of war have disrupted education. Recreational pastimes include soccer, horse and camel racing, and business-driven ventures like telecommunication are growing in cities. Many Somalis live abroad (in East Africa, the Gulf, Europe and North America); the diaspora maintains media outlets and remittance networks that connect to Somalia’s local culture.

Environment and Ecology

Somalia’s natural environment is fragile and under stress. The country’s ecosystems – arid savannas, occasional shrublands and coastal waters – are highly vulnerable to climatic extremes and human impact. Over the past few decades Somalia has suffered repeated droughts and floods, which have escalated with climate change. In 2022, for example, a severe drought affected more than 7 million Somalis and pushed millions toward famine conditions An analysis by climate experts ranks Somalia as the second-most vulnerable country in the world to climate change, despite its minimal greenhouse gas emissions.

Land degradation is widespread. Deforestation (especially for charcoal fuel) and overgrazing have accelerated soil erosion and desertification Much of the original scrub and acacia woodlands have been cleared, reducing forage for livestock and breeding grounds for wildlife. As a result, Somalia has lost some of its biodiversity: native animals like gazelles, zebra and dugong have declined or vanished in many areas. The country is considered one of the most biodiverse in the Horn of Africa, but habitats are threatened by uncontrolled hunting and shrinking water sources Conservation efforts exist on paper, but enforcement is limited by instability.

The long coastline and Indian Ocean offshore are important resources. Somali coastal waters harbor abundant fish, octopus and lobster, yet commercial fishing has been underdeveloped due to conflict and lack of infrastructure. Coral reefs and mangrove stands near the coast are grazed by livestock and affected by sediment run-off. Coastal erosion and rising sea levels pose a future risk to port cities like Mogadishu and Kismayo.

Poor environmental governance and recurring emergencies put people and wildlife at risk. For pastoralists, changing rainfall patterns mean grazing lands can fail suddenly, fueling competition sometimes linked to conflict Water scarcity is chronic: most Somalis depend on seasonal rivers, underground wells or shallow ponds that dry up in droughts. Humanitarian agencies warn that without better management of water and land, Somalia’s environmental crises will undermine recovery. International organizations and local partners are promoting sustainable practices – such as drought-resistant agriculture, charcoal alternatives and reforestation – but progress is slow in a country still focused on basic survival.