Mongolia

Mongolia
Type	Country
Key terms	landlocked, steppe climate, mining-driven economy
Related	Ulaanbaatar, Gobi Desert, Silk Road
Examples	Naadam Festival, Erdene Zuu Monastery, Trans-Mongolian Railway
Domain	Countries
Wikidata	Q711

Mongolia is a landlocked country in East and Central Asia, bordered by Russia to the north and China to the south. It covers about 1.56 million square kilometers—roughly the size of Western Europe—but has only around 3.5 million people, making it one of the world’s most sparsely populated countries. The landscape is dominated by vast grassy steppes, the Altai and Khangai mountain ranges, and (in the south) the arid Gobi Desert. In the 13th century, Mongolia was the heart of the Mongol Empire led by Genghis Khan, the largest contiguous land empire in history. Today Mongolia is a democratic republic, known for its nomadic culture and Tibetan Buddhist heritage. Its capital and largest city, Ulaanbaatar, is home to nearly half the population.

Geography and Climate

Mongolia lies in the heart of the Asian continent and is completely landlocked. It shares long borders only with Russia to the north and China to the south. The country is mostly a high plateau (average elevation about 1,580 m above sea level) of grassy plains and desert. The central and eastern regions are dominated by open steppes (grasslands), while the western and northern parts rise into the Altai and Khangai mountain ranges (with peaks above 3,000–4,000 m). In the far south lies the Gobi Desert, a cold high‐altitude desert of sand dunes and bare rock.

Mongolia’s climate is one of the most extreme: it has long, bitterly cold winters and short summers. In Ulaanbaatar (1,350 m elevation, northern Mongolia), January temperatures average around –20 °C (and can fall below –30 °C), while July averages are near 18 °C. Precipitation is low year-round: most of the country is semi-arid. Rain typically falls in summer (often as thunderstorms), whereas winters are very dry. Total rainfall ranges from a few hundred millimeters in the north to under 100 mm in the Gobi Desert. These conditions mean Mongolia has mostly grassland and desert vegetation.

Demographics

Mongolia’s population is just over 3.5 million. Mongols of the Khalkha group form the vast majority of the people; there are smaller Kazakh, Tuvan and other minorities (mostly in the western provinces). Ulaanbaatar has about 1.6 million residents (nearly half the nation), with the rest spread thinly across the countryside.

The official language is Mongolian (Khalkha dialect), written in Cyrillic script. (A traditional Mongolian script is taught in schools but used mainly on cultural occasions.) Literacy is nearly universal. About a third of Mongolians still live as nomadic or semi-nomadic herders, moving seasonally with their livestock; others are urban or rural townsfolk.

Tibetan Buddhism is the majority religion (revived after 1990), and Mongolian culture was long shaped by Buddhist and shamanic traditions. A large portion of the population (30–40%) identifies as non-religious or atheist (reflecting decades of communist rule). Islam is practiced mainly by the Kazakh minority in the west (a few percent of people). Mongolia’s constitution guarantees freedom of religion, and today temples and monasteries operate alongside secular life.

History

Mongolia’s history is dominated by its nomadic empires. In 1206 Temüjin united the Mongol tribes and took the name Genghis Khan, launching a series of conquests. Under Genghis and his successors, Mongol armies built the largest contiguous empire in history, stretching across Asia and into Europe. In 1271 Genghis’s grandson Kublai Khan founded China’s Yuan Dynasty, ruling all of China and beyond.

When the Yuan fell in 1368, the Mongols retreated to the steppe. Their unity fractured into rival khanates and tribal leagues. In the 16th–17th centuries Tibetan Buddhism spread across Mongolia, reinforcing the power of Buddhist monasteries. By the late 17th century, however, the Manchu-led Qing Dynasty absorbed Mongolia into its empire (as “Outer Mongolia”), ruling it until the early 1900s.

The collapse of the Qing in 1911 allowed Mongolia to declare independence. For a few years it was a theocratic monarchy under the Bogd Khan. In 1921–1924, with Soviet backing, it became the Mongolian People’s Republic – the world’s second socialist state. During the communist era, Mongolia was closely aligned with the USSR: the traditional aristocracy and much of Buddhism were suppressed in favor of collectivization and industrialization.

In 1990, following reforms in Eastern Europe, Mongolia held peaceful democratic protests and abandoned one-party rule. A new constitution (1992) created a multi-party parliamentary democracy and a market economy. Since then, Mongolia has remained a democracy. Political power alternates through elections, and the country has pursued open trade and limited free-market reforms.

Governance

Since 1992 Mongolia has been a parliamentary republic. The constitution divides power among an elected President (head of state), a Prime Minister (head of government), and a unicameral legislature (the State Great Khural of 76 members). The president is elected by popular vote (single six-year term) and has some veto and foreign policy powers; the prime minister is chosen by Parliament from the majority party or coalition.

Mongolia’s political system alternates power between two main parties: the formerly Communist Mongolian People’s Party (MPP) and the Democratic Party (a center-right coalition). Elections are held regularly (parliamentary elections were last held in 2020; the next cycle is in 2024). The country’s 21 provinces (aimags) and the capital territory have local governors.

In recent years, Mongolian politics has seen relatively smooth transfers of power. However, corruption and public debt remain public concerns. In mid-2025, a wave of protests over government spending led to the resignation of the prime minister – reflecting active public involvement. Mongolia also pursues a “third neighbour” foreign policy, seeking international partnerships beyond its immediate neighbors.

Economy

Mongolia’s economy is driven by mining, agriculture (nomadic herding), and a growing service sector. Natural resources dominate: the country is rich in minerals like coal, copper, gold, and uranium. Coal exports to China alone can be tens of millions of tons per year (worth several billion dollars). Large projects in copper-gold (e.g. the Oyu Tolgoi mine) and new ventures in uranium (noticed by France’s Orano for a Gobi deposit) underscore this focus.

About 80–85% of Mongolia’s exports go to China, reflecting heavy dependence on that market. The country imports most of its fuel and goods from Russia, especially petroleum. As a result, economic growth is volatile: good commodity prices can push GDP up by 8–10% in a year, but downturns can cause contractions. GDP per capita is modest (about US$4,500) by world standards.

Herding remains central for many rural Mongolians — Mongolia is the world’s largest producer of cashmere (goat fiber) and has over 20 million livestock. Tourism and other services are expanding in Ulaanbaatar and scenic regions, but overall jobs and income are uneven. The government often runs budget deficits (for infrastructure, pensions, etc.) and has taken foreign loans. In response, reforms have been made: Mongolia joined the WTO in 1997 and is working to attract foreign investment.

Mongolia also seeks to diversify energy. It has considerable wind and solar potential, and in 2025 announced plans (with international partners) to build hundreds of megawatts of renewable energy projects. Still, resource wealth remains a mixed blessing: managing mining revenues while building a stable, inclusive economy is an ongoing challenge.

Culture

Mongolian culture remains rooted in its nomadic heritage. Many families live in gers (round felt yurts) and make a living tending livestock. Traditional clothing (the deel) is still worn in rural and festive settings. Mongolian music and performance arts reflect the nomadic life: the morin khuur (“horsehead fiddle”) is a national instrument, and vocal techniques like long folk songs and throat-singing (khoomei) evoke the sounds of the steppe.

The most famous national festival is Naadam (July 11–13), featuring the “three manly games” of wrestling, archery and horse racing, rooted in ancient Mongol tradition. Riders sprint long distances on horseback, wrestlers compete in elimination rounds, and archers (often women as well as men) shoot at distant targets. Another important festival is Tsagaan Sar, the Lunar New Year, celebrated with family feasts and dairy specialties.

Mongolian cuisine centers on meat and dairy: lamb or beef (boiled in soups or fried), milk tea, yogurt and the fermented mare’s milk airag (the national drink). Buddhist and shamanic traditions influence art and ceremonies – for example, many temples blend Mongolian and Tibetan architectural styles. In recent decades, Ulaanbaatar has grown cosmopolitan, but even there many traditional arts (dance, throat-singing, horse-sports) are publicly celebrated as part of Mongolia’s national identity.

Environment

Mongolia’s ecosystems are largely undeveloped by humans and range from Siberian forests in the north to Central Asian deserts in the south. Wildlife is abundant: for example, millions of Mongolian gazelles roam the steppes, wild sheep and horses graze the highlands, and endangered snow leopards, wolves and bears inhabit the mountains. The Gobi Desert supports the wild Bactrian camel and the rare Gobi bear. Over 10% of Mongolia’s land is officially protected (national parks like Gorkhi-Terelj, Khustain Nuruu and Great Gobi aim to conserve biodiversity). Lake Khövsgöl and Ubs Lake in the north are internationally recognized for their pristine ecosystems.

Environmental challenges are significant. Overgrazing and drought have allowed desert fronts to advance into pastureland. Every few years Mongolia suffers a harsh dzud (winter calamity) in which deep snows and cold kill large numbers of livestock. Ulaanbaatar regularly experiences severe winter air pollution from burning coal for heat. Climate change adds uncertainty: glaciers and permafrost are retreating, affecting river flows and pasture productivity.

The government and NGOs are active in conservation and sustainable development. There are reforestation and anti-desertification programs, efforts to protect wildlife (wolf and snow leopard conservation, saiga antelope protection), and recent initiatives in renewable energy and water management. Mongolia’s remote wilderness and diverse habitats make it critical for Central Asian ecology, but balancing development with nature is an ongoing task.