Mexico

Mexico
Type	Sovereign state
Key terms	geography & climate, demographics, economy & governance
Related	North America, Latin America, United States
Examples	Mexico City, Yucatán Peninsula, USMCA
Domain	Geography, History, Economics
Wikidata	Q96

Mexico, officially the United Mexican States, is a country in North America occupying the southern portion of the continent. It borders the United States to the north and Guatemala and Belize to the southeast, and has coasts on both the Pacific Ocean and the Gulf of Mexico. Mexico spans about 1.97 million square kilometers, making it the world’s thirteenth-largest country by area. Its population of roughly 130 million people is the eleventh largest in the world, and its capital and largest city is Mexico City. Mexico is a federal republic, meaning it is governed as a federation of states under a national constitution, and it blends a Spanish colonial heritage with a rich legacy of Indigenous civilizations.

Geography and Climate

Mexico’s landscape is highly varied. Three major north-south mountain ranges – the Sierra Madre Occidental in the west, the Sierra Madre Oriental in the east, and the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt (Sierra Madre del Sur) across the center – enclose high central plateaus and basins. Pico de Orizaba (Citlaltépetl), a volcanic peak 5,636 meters high, is the country’s tallest mountain. In the far north lie the deserts of Sonora and Chihuahua; to the south are tropical lowlands, forests and jungles (such as the Yucatán Peninsula’s rainforests). Mexico’s southern border touches Latin America (Central America), but geologically it is part of North America. Its climate varies from arid in the north to tropical in the south, with temperate highlands in between. Much of Mexico lies just south of the Tropic of Cancer, and elevation heavily influences climate: for example, temperate conditions prevail at altitudes above 2,000 meters, whereas coastal plains are hot and humid.

Mexico also has distinct wet and dry seasons. Most of the country receives most of its rainfall from June to October, with a dry season from November through May. Rainfall averages only a few hundred millimeters per year in the north, but exceeds 1,000 millimeters in parts of the Gulf and Pacific coastal lowlands; the southeastern state of Tabasco can average around 2,000 mm annually. Mexico is within the tropical hurricane belt, so its Gulf and Caribbean coasts often face Atlantic hurricanes from June to November. Highland areas (for example around Mexico City at 2,300 meters) enjoy temperate climates – Mexico City’s average year-round temperature is about 15 °C. A small region around Tijuana has a Mediterranean climate. Seasonal extremes and volcanic activity also characterize Mexico: it has several active volcanoes (Popocatépetl, for instance) and lies near seismic fault lines, meaning earthquakes (like the 1985 Mexico City quake) are a part of its natural environment.

Demographics

Mexico’s population is a diverse mix of ethnic and cultural groups. About 60–65% of Mexicans identify as Mestizo (a term for mixed Indigenous and European ancestry), reflecting centuries of blending between Indigenous peoples and Spanish colonists. Smaller percentages identify as primarily Indigenous (with groups like the Nahua, Maya, Zapotec, Mixtec, and many others), white or European, or of African heritage (Afro-Mexicans). About 5–10% of the population lives in socially recognized Indigenous communities, mainly in southern and central states; over 90 distinct Indigenous languages and dialects are spoken (common examples include Nahuatl, Maya, and Zapoteca) and have official recognition alongside Spanish.

Spanish is the most widely spoken language and functions as the de facto national language, but Mexican law recognizes all Indigenous languages as national languages as well. Nearly 80% of Mexicans are Roman Catholic, reflecting Spain’s colonial influence; nearly all celebrate religious holidays associated with Catholicism, though religious practice has grown more pluralistic in recent decades with Protestant and non-religious communities. Mexico’s people are relatively young (median age around 29) and its population is about 80% urban. The largest urban area is Greater Mexico City (city and suburbs), home to over 21 million people, followed by Guadalajara, Monterrey, Puebla, and Toluca. Mexico has a literacy rate above 95% and the UN calculates its Human Development Index as “high.” The country also has a large global diaspora; tens of millions of people of Mexican origin live abroad, chiefly in the United States, influencing culture and economics in both countries.

Economy

Mexico has a large, emerging market economy. By nominal GDP it is among the world’s fifteen largest national economies, and it ranks second in Latin America after Brazil. The country has a gross domestic product around USD 1.3–1.5 trillion and a GDP per capita on the order of USD 10,000–12,000. Mexico’s economy is a mix of modern industry and traditional agriculture. The service sector is the biggest part of the economy (around 58–60% of GDP), followed by industry (about 30–32%) and agriculture (roughly 4%) Important industries include automobile and parts manufacturing, consumer electronics and appliances, mining, petroleum extraction and refining (Pemex, the state oil company, has historically been a major player), food and beverage processing, and tourism. Mexico is one of the world’s top oil producers (and a founding member of OPEC, though it is currently not an active member), and its beaches, cultural sites, and heritage draw millions of visitors each year (tourism contributes around 8–9% of GDP and employs millions).

Trade is crucial: Mexico is highly integrated with the global market. It is the United States’ third-largest trading partner and often ranks among the top countries for exports to the U.S. (manufactured goods such as automobiles, electronics, appliances) as well as sources of U.S. imports (vehicles, machinery, agricultural products). Mexico has free trade agreements with over 40 countries (notably the USMCA with the United States and Canada, formerly NAFTA), and its economy benefits from foreign investment. Remittances from Mexican workers abroad are also significant, amounting to tens of billions of dollars each year.

Still, the economy faces challenges. Average income and living standards are lower than in the United States and Europe, and poverty affects a large segment of the population (around 40–45% of Mexicans are officially classified as poor, a legacy of rural-urban inequality and uneven development Income inequality is high by OECD standards. Mexico’s government has pursued market reforms such as privatization of some industries and labor reforms, but corruption and crime can deter growth. Inflation has been moderate (around 3–5% in recent years). The national currency is the Mexican peso (MXN), a float currency that is widely traded. In summary, Mexico today has a diversified economy with modern manufacturing and services, but also a sizeable informal sector and agriculture that faces global competition.

Governance

Mexico is a federal constitutional republic. Its current constitution dates from 1917 (amended many times), which emerged from the Mexican Revolution and established many modern principles (land reform, labor rights, secular education, etc.). The head of state and government is the president, elected by popular vote for a single six-year term (known as a sexenio) with no reelection. The president appoints a cabinet and has significant powers, but Mexico’s legislature and judiciary provide checks and balances. The national legislature (the Congress of the Union) is bicameral: an upper chamber (Senate, 128 members) and a lower chamber (Chamber of Deputies, 500 members). Laws require approval by Congress after executive initiative, and Mexico’s Supreme Court of Justice heads the federal judicial system.

There are 32 federal entities (31 states plus Mexico City, the capital, which has a status similar to a state). Each state has its own government, governor, and constitution, mirroring the federal structure. Below states are thousands of municipalities (municipios) that handle local administration. Mexico is considered a democracy, but its young democratic institutions face challenges: many citizens associate politics with corruption or lack of accountability, and there have been concerns about rule of law. Mexico also contends with the influence of powerful drug cartels and organized crime in parts of the country, which has complicated local governance and security; federal, state, and local authorities carry out policing and anti-corruption efforts to varying degrees of success.

Politically, the ruling party (as of the 2020s) is the left-wing National Regeneration Movement (Morena), founded by President Andrés Manuel López Obrador (AMLO), who was elected in 2018. Major historical parties include the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI), which held unbroken power from 1929 to 2000; the National Action Party (PAN), which won elections in 2000, 2006, and 2012; and others like the Party of the Democratic Revolution (PRD). Mexican elections at the federal and local levels have been competitive in recent decades, marking a transition from one-party dominance. Mexico is a member of numerous international organizations (United Nations, World Trade Organization, Organization of American States, Pacific Alliance, G20, OECD) and often plays a leading regional role.

History

Mexico’s history spans ancient civilizations to modern times. In pre-Columbian eras, advanced Indigenous cultures flourished on these lands. For example, the Maya built great cities and pyramids (as at Chichén Itzá on the Yucatán Peninsula) and devised sophisticated calendars and writing systems. In central Mexico, the Aztec (Mexica) Empire established a powerful state centered at Tenochtitlan (modern Mexico City) by the early 16th century. Other notable societies included the Olmec (often called the “mother culture” of Mesoamerica), the Toltec, and the Zapotec. These societies practiced maize agriculture, constructed pyramids and temples, and developed rich traditions of art and architecture.

Spanish conquest brought dramatic change. In 1519–1521, the Spanish conquistador Hernán Cortés overthrew the Aztec Empire, aided by native allies and diseases, and claimed the territory for Spain. Over the next three centuries, the Spanish colony of New Spain was established. Colonial Mexico was a major source of wealth for Spain through its mines (notably silver in Zacatecas and Guanajuato) and agriculture. The Catholic Church played a central role, converting many Indigenous people (often by force) and reshaping society. Indigenous populations declined sharply due to disease and colonial policies. A colonial social hierarchy emerged, with Spaniards and mestizos generally dominant, while Indigenous peoples were often marginalized.

The 19th century saw Mexico’s struggle for independence and nationhood. In 1810, Catholic priest Miguel Hidalgo’s uprising (el Grito de Dolores) began the war for independence. After a decade of conflict against Spanish rule, Mexico achieved independence in 1821 under Emperor Agustín de Iturbide (briefly a monarchy). The empire collapsed in 1823, giving way to the Republic under the Constitution of 1824. Mexico’s early national period was turbulent: it lost vast northern territories to the United States in the Mexican–American War (1846–1848) and saw internal conflict between liberals and conservatives. In the 1860s, France invaded and installed Emperor Maximilian (1864–1867), but republican forces (led by Benito Juárez) ultimately restored the republic.

In the late 19th century, General Porfirio Díaz ruled Mexico (1876–1911) with a long authoritarian regime known as the Porfiriato. Díaz promoted industrial growth, foreign investment, railroads, and strong central control, but at the cost of political freedom and rural land fairness. In 1910 revolution erupted: peasants and workers (led by figures such as Francisco Madero, Pancho Villa, Emiliano Zapata, and others) revolted against Díaz’s dictatorship. This decade-long struggle (the Mexican Revolution) led to Díaz’s ouster, social upheaval, and eventually the creation of a new constitution in 1917 under President Venustiano Carranza. The 1917 Constitution instituted land reform (distributing hacienda lands to communities), labor rights, secular education, and limits on foreign ownership of resources (especially oil).

After the revolution, Mexico was largely governed by the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI) for much of the 20th century, establishing a single-party system that ended feudalism, nationalized oil in 1938 (under Lázaro Cárdenas), and industrialized the economy. The middle decades (1940s–1970s) are often called Mexico’s “developmental state” period, with state-led growth and import substitution industrialization. This era improved education and infrastructure but also saw political repression (for example, the government killed student protesters in 1968). Economic crises in the 1970s–80s prompted liberalization: Mexico joined GATT (now the WTO) in 1986 and negotiated NAFTA in the early 1990s. In 2000, Mexico experienced its first peaceful transfer of power to an opposition party when Vicente Fox of the PAN became president, signaling democratization.

In the 21st century, Mexico’s politics have alternated among parties (PAN, PRI, and now Morena). Notable events include massive drug-related violence and a federal “war on drugs” starting in the 2000s that led to tens of thousands of deaths, political reforms to strengthen elections, and social programs. More recently, Andrés Manuel López Obrador (AMLO) ushered in left-leaning governance (from 2018), focusing on fighting corruption and social inequality, while facing challenges such as cartel violence and pandemic recovery. Throughout its history, Mexico has combined Indigenous and European influences and undergone cycles of authoritarianism and democracy, building the nation known today.

Culture

Mexican culture is a vibrant blend of Indigenous heritage and Spanish colonial influence. The majority language is Spanish, but customs and traditions often draw from Indigenous roots. Family and community bonds are strong cultural values. Festivals and holidays are widely celebrated: for example, Día de los Muertos (Day of the Dead) is a fusion of Indigenous ancestor rituals and Catholic All Souls’ Day, marked by colorful altars and marigold decorations. Other important celebrations include Catholic holidays like Christmas and Easter, Independence Day (September 16), and local patron saint festivals (fiestas patronales).

Mexican cuisine is world-famous and was recognized by UNESCO as an Intangible Cultural Heritage. It centers on staple ingredients such as corn, beans, chili peppers, and tomatoes. Iconic dishes include tacos, tamales, mole sauces, enchiladas, and guacamole. Mexico is also the birthplace of chocolate and native varieties of vanilla. Social rituals like family meals and street markets are integral aspects of daily life.

In the arts, Mexico has made major contributions. The 20th century saw a Mexican muralist movement (with artists Diego Rivera, José Clemente Orozco, and David Alfaro Siqueiros) whose large public murals depicted social and historical themes. Celebrated painters like Frida Kahlo explored personal and national identity in her works. Literature has notable figures such as Nobel laureate Octavio Paz and novelist Carlos Fuentes. Mexico’s Golden Age of cinema (1940s–50s) produced classics and film stars, and modern directors (Alejandro González Iñárritu, Alfonso Cuarón, Guillermo del Toro) have earned international acclaim. Traditional music ranges from mariachi bands (often from Jalisco) and ranchera songs to diverse regional folk forms; contemporary Mexican music also includes pop, rock, and Latino genres. Sports play a role in culture too, especially football (soccer), which draws passionate support.

Religious practices blend Catholicism with Indigenous elements. About 80% of Mexicans identify as Catholic, and shrines like the Basilica of Our Lady of Guadalupe in Mexico City are major pilgrimage sites. However, Mexico is a secular state with guaranteed religious freedom, and other faiths (Protestant, Jewish, etc.) and secular identities are present. Education and art from pre-colonial times to the present are preserved in many museums and UNESCO World Heritage Sites (such as ancient city ruins like Chichén Itzá and colonial centers like Mexico City’s historic core). In all, Mexican culture is known for its colorful festivals, artistic creativity, and a mix of influences that make it distinct.

Environment

Mexico is one of the world’s most biodiverse countries. Its varied geography – deserts up north, tropical forests in the south, mountains in between – creates many ecosystems. Mexico hosts thousands of plant and animal species (many endemic). For example, it has one of the highest numbers of amphibian and reptile species globally, and millions of monarch butterflies migrate each year to overwinter in Mexico’s central highlands. Large areas of tropical rainforest (in states like Chiapas and Oaxaca), pine-oak forests in the mountains, coastal mangroves, and Gulf/Caribbean coral reefs add to this richness. The government has designated numerous protected areas, including biosphere reserves (such as Sian Ka’an and Montes Azules) and national parks (like Volcanoes National Park near Mexico City) to conserve this natural wealth. Tropical corals, jaguars, vaquitas (rare porpoises in the Gulf of California), and the axolotl (a salamander native to Mexico City’s region) are examples of Mexico’s unique wildlife.

Environmental challenges are significant. Deforestation has been rapid: for example, tropical forest cover in Tabasco state shrank from about half of its land in 1940 to under 10% by the late 1980s due to logging and land clearing Over-cultivation and cattle ranching have led to soil erosion in many regions. Air pollution was once extreme in urban areas; Mexico City famously suffered from smog, although reforms (like unleaded fuel, emissions controls and transit improvements) have improved air quality in recent decades. Water scarcity affects northern agricultural zones and even central cities, while flooding and hurricanes periodically threaten coastal and gulf areas. Climate change brings more extreme weather: Mexico has seen intense hurricanes on its coasts and severe droughts in parts of the interior.

Mexico has committed to international environmental agreements and has invested in renewable energy projects. Solar and wind farms have grown, particularly in states like Oaxaca. However, balancing conservation with development remains a debate (for example, infrastructure projects in the southeast have raised concerns about forests and indigenous lands). Indigenous communities and environmentalists in Mexico play active roles in defending forests and biodiversity In summary, Mexico’s environment is exceptionally rich, making environmental protection a national priority amid the pressures of deforestation, urbanization, and climate shifts.