Iraq
| Iraq | |
|---|---|
| |
| Type | Sovereign state |
| Key terms | Geography and climate; Demographics; Economy and governance |
| Related | Mesopotamia; Tigris–Euphrates; Middle East |
| Examples | Baghdad; Basra; Mosul |
| Domain | Geography; Politics; History |
| Wikidata | Q796 |
Iraq is a country in Western Asia (the Middle East), bordered by Turkey to the north, Iran to the east, Kuwait and Saudi Arabia to the south, Jordan and Syria to the west, and the Persian Gulf to the southeast. Its capital is Baghdad. Iraq occupies the lower Mesopotamian plain formed by the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, a cradle of ancient civilization. Today it is a federal parliamentary republic rich in oil and cultural heritage but challenged by poverty, political fragmentation, and environmental stress. In recent years Iraq has stabilized after long conflict, while facing new challenges such as demonstrations for reform, climate change impacts, and efforts to modernize its economy and infrastructure.
Geography and Climate
Iraq covers about 438,000 square kilometers, slightly more than three times the size of New York State. Its terrain varies widely. In the east and south are broad alluvial plains irrigated by the Tigris and Euphrates, once known as the Fertile Crescent. These plains host most of the country’s agriculture and population. In the north are rugged mountains, part of the Zagros range, with peaks exceeding 3,600 meters (the highest point is Cheekha Dar at about 3,611 m). The rest of the country – especially the western and southern deserts – is mostly flat, barren plateau and sand desert (extensions of the Syrian Desert) with scattered salt flats. In the far southeast are the unique Mesopotamian marshes (the Ahwar of southern Iraq), wetlands formed by the rivers near the Persian Gulf.
Iraq’s climate is mostly arid and continental. Summers (May–September) are extremely hot and dry, especially in the central and southern deserts where daytime temperatures can exceed 50°C. Winters (December–February) are mild to cool on the plains, but northern mountains see cold, sometimes snowy winters. Rainfall is scarce: most falls in the winter months, and only in the northern foothills and mountains does rainfall reach levels (500–800 mm per year) that support forests and cooler summers. Most of Iraq (especially the central plains and deserts) receives below 200 mm of rain per year, making irrigation crucial. Seasonal dust storms and droughts are increasingly common. Water flow in the Tigris and Euphrates rivers has declined in recent decades due to dam projects upstream (in Turkey and Iran) and lower rainfall, creating a water crisis that threatens agriculture and livelihoods. In response, the Iraqi government has launched climate-adaptation measures (for example, modernizing irrigation and a large reforestation campaign) and is developing solar power to meet energy needs amid recurring electricity shortages.
Demographics
Iraq’s population is young and growing. As of late 2024, a national census found about 45.4 million residents, up from around 31.6 million in 2009. The population is about evenly split male/female, with a median age in the early 20s. About 70–75% of Iraqis live in cities. The largest cities include Baghdad (the capital, roughly 7–8 million people), Mosul, Basra, Kirkuk, Najaf, and Erbil (the capital of Kurdistan Region). The country’s population was long displaced by war and sectarian strife, but many refugees and internally displaced people have returned since 2017. (As of 2023, some 1.3 million Iraqis remained displaced within the country and over 260,000 Syrian refugees were in Iraq.)
Iraq is ethnically diverse. The majority of citizens are Arab (roughly 75–80%), including both Shia and Sunni Muslims. The largest minority are the Kurds (around 15–20%), concentrated in the semi-autonomous Kurdistan Region in the northeast (governorates of Erbil, Duhok/Sulaymaniyah). Other ethnic groups include Turkmen, Assyrians, Yazidis, Shabaks, and others. Nearly all Iraqis speak Arabic (the official national language) or Kurdish (official in Kurdistan). In some regions, Syriac (Neo-Aramaic) and Turkmen (a Turkish dialect) are recognized.
Religion is a central part of Iraqi identity. Roughly 95% of Iraqis are Muslim. Among them, about 60–65% are Shia Muslims (concentrated in the south and parts of Baghdad), 30–35% are Sunni Muslims (spread across central and northern cities), and the rest follow smaller faiths. Historically significant minorities include Christians (like Chaldean Catholics, Assyrian Christians, Armenian Christians) and other faiths (Yazidis, Mandaeans, etc.), though their numbers have declined sharply due to exile and persecution. Today Christians might number well under 1% of the population. The government officially separates religion from state, but sectarian identity still strongly influences politics and society. Literacy in Iraq is about 85–90%, higher among men than women and higher in cities than rural areas; most school-age children are now enrolled in primary education.
Economy
Iraq’s economy is dominated by its oil and gas sector. The country holds about 145 billion barrels of proven oil reserves (roughly the fifth-largest in the world), mainly in fields in the south (Basra area) and northern Kurdistan. Oil revenues account for over 90% of export earnings and some 40–50% of GDP. Unlike many oil economies, agriculture and industry are a much smaller share (Agriculture ~4–5% of GDP, Industry ~50% mostly oil). The government-run State Organization for Marketing of Oil (SOMO) sells most crude; Iraq is a top member of OPEC and second among OPEC countries in production. In recent years, Iraq exported around 3.8–4 million barrels per day of oil.
This heavy dependency on hydrocarbons makes Iraq’s budget and economy vulnerable to oil price swings. A high oil price in 2022–23 helped finance government spending, but a price drop in 2024 prodded officials to tighten budgets. In 2023, the government budget was over 200 trillion Iraqi dinars (about US$160 billion), a large share of which paid salaries and pensions for the massive public sector (roughly 40% of spending). Non-oil revenues (taxes, etc.) are small by comparison, though Iraq has sought reforms to boost them and reduce waste. Even so, many Iraqis remain poor and unemployed, especially youth. Unemployment can be in the double digits (estimates vary) and poverty affects perhaps a quarter or more of the population. Economic growth resumes when oil is stable: after a big slump during the Iraq War and sanctions, growth hovered around several percent annually in the late 2010s, though the 2020 COVID pandemic caused a sharp contraction. The economy recovered in 2021–22 with the global rebound and higher energy prices.
Beyond oil, Iraq has some agriculture and industry. Crops include wheat, barley, rice, dates (Basra dates are famed) and vegetables grown on irrigated lands. Farming was once extensive in the marshlands, which have partly recovered, but water shortages and salinity now hurting yields have forced farmers to shift to hardier crops. Efforts to modernize farming include better irrigation and drought-resistant plantings (for example, some farmers are planting native sidr trees instead of water-thirsty date palms). Industry includes refining oil (domestic refineries supply only a portion of local demand), as well as cement, steel, and construction materials. Decades of conflict severely damaged industrial infrastructure and electric power networks; shortages of electricity and fuel are common, especially in summers. To address this, the government is investing in new power plants (including renewable projects) and restructuring the energy sector. Notably, Iraq opened its first large solar power station in 2025 (west of Karbala) and plans about 12,500 MW of solar capacity – enough to supply up to 15–20% of national demand – to reduce costly oil/gas imports and pollution from power generation.
Iraq trades heavily with its neighbors. It must import many goods and services, including food and technology. Key partners are China and other Asian countries (for oil exports), and nearby Turkey, Jordan, and Iran for trade and energy (Iraq imports electricity and gas from Iran). Lifting of some sanctions and regional treaties are gradually reopening trade routes. Iraq also receives reconstruction aid and loans from international organizations and friendly states, though corruption and instability have hampered broad foreign investment outside the oil sector.
Governance and Politics
Iraq is officially the Republic of Iraq. According to the 2005 constitution, it is a federal parliamentary democracy. This means power is divided between a national (federal) government and regional authorities, and the executive is drawn from and accountable to a representative parliament. The national legislature is the Council of Representatives, a single chamber of 329 seats (as of 2021) elected for four-year terms. Legislation and voting in elections are based largely on proportional representation, with seats reserved for minorities and quotas for women. The head of state is the President (a mostly ceremonial role), elected by parliament; the head of government is the Prime Minister, who must command parliamentary support. The Prime Minister and cabinet run day-to-day affairs.
In practice, Iraqi politics are fragmented along ethnic and sectarian lines. Since 2003, power-sharing has generally followed a formula: the President is chosen by the Kurdish bloc, the Prime Minister from the Shia majority, and the Speaker of Parliament by the Sunnis. Parties and coalitions are often aligned with religious leaders or regional powers (for example, Iran-backed Shia parties, or Kurdish parties). The government is also influenced by powerful militias (many formed during the fight against ISIS) which have semi-autonomous command. In recent years the state has tried to integrate these groups into official security forces, but many still operate with their own leadership.
Iraq’s system includes 18 governorates (provinces), each with limited local authority. Elections for governorate councils have been delayed for years, and many governors are still appointed by Baghdad. The Kurdistan Region (in the north) is a special federal entity with its own constitution, parliament, and security forces (the Peshmerga). Kurdish officials have significant autonomy over local affairs and oil revenues, though they also share some powers and budgets with Baghdad under federal law.
Iraqi institutions face severe challenges. Widespread graft, patronage, and bureaucratic inefficiency are persistent problems. Many Iraqis criticize governments as unresponsive and slow to provide services, fueling street protests. A wave of mass protests that began in late 2019 (the “Tishreen” movement) demanded jobs, better services, and an end to sectarian quotas in government. Authorities initially cracked down violently. The crisis eventually led to the resignation of then-Prime Minister Adil Abdul-Mahdi in 2019. Subsequent governments pledged reforms, but progress has been slow. In response to popular pressure, Baghdad held parliamentary elections in October 2021. Forming a working majority took a year, and in October 2022 parliament approved Mohammed Shia al-Sudani as Prime Minister. His coalition runs the government today, but internal divisions and public discontent remain high.
Security is another ongoing concern. Iraq’s armed forces (the Iraqi Army) and police rely on international support. After the defeat of ISIS in 2017, the U.S.-led anti-ISIS coalition retained about 2,500 American troops in Iraq as trainers and advisers. Under a 2023 agreement, that NATO-led mission will end by late 2025, transitioning to bilateral U.S.–Iraq security pacts. Iraq also still hosts troops from other nations (e.g. U.K.); however, the role of foreign forces is widely debated. Baghdad tries to balance relations between its main patrons, the U.S. and Iran. Iranian influence is strong through allied political parties and armed groups that fought ISIS. Stabilizing Iraq involves managing those internal and external dynamics.
Iraq is a member of international groups like the United Nations, the Arab League, OPEC (Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries), and the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation. It is also part of regional cooperation bodies (e.g. the Arab Gas Pipeline project, and lately improved ties with some neighbors). In recent years, Iraq has led efforts to manage shared resources: for example, it initiated talks with Turkey over water-sharing from upstream dams on the Tigris and Euphrates, culminating in a 2025 draft agreement to coordinate river flows amid drought. Diplomatically, Baghdad has sought to rebuild relations with Gulf states and western powers, while also preserving bilateral ties with fellow Muslims.
History
Iraq’s history spans the cradle of human civilization to modern statehood. Around 10,000 BCE, the fertile lands between the Tigris and Euphrates first saw settled agriculture. By the 4th millennium BCE, city-states such as Sumer (with cities like Ur and Eridu) arose, inventing writing (cuneiform) and complex societies. Over millennia this region was successively ruled by Akkadian, Babylonian, and Assyrian empires, each making lasting cultural contributions (law codes, monumental architecture, astronomy, etc.). Around 539 BCE, Persia conquered Babylon. In 331 BCE Alexander the Great incorporated Mesopotamia into his empire, followed by rule of the Seleucid Greeks and then the Parthians and Sassanids, who ran Persian empire for centuries.
In the 7th century CE, Arab Muslim armies conquered the land, and Iraq became a heartland of the early Islamic world. In 762 CE the Abbasid caliph (al-Mansur) founded Baghdad; under the Abbasids (8th–13th centuries), the city was the largest in the world and a center of learning and trade (the “Golden Age” of Islam). Invasions by the Mongols (Baghdad sacked 1258) and later by Timur devastated parts of the region. By the 16th century, Ottoman Turks absorbed Iraq into their empire, with only brief interruptions (e.g. Persian control of western areas).
After World War I and the collapse of the Ottoman Empire, Britain occupied Iraq. In 1921 Britain installed Faisal I as king, creating the Hashemite monarchy. Iraq gained formal independence in 1932, but remained under British influence. A coup in 1958 overthrew the monarchy; Iraq became a republic amidst Cold War turbulence. The Ba’ath Party came to power in 1968, and Saddam Hussein became President in 1979. Under his rule, Iraq pursued modernization and regional power, but also brutal repression. It fought a brutal Iran–Iraq War (1980–88) over border disputes, then invaded Kuwait in 1990, prompting the 1991 Gulf War by a U.S.-led coalition. Severe UN sanctions through the 1990s crippled Iraq’s economy.
In 2003, a U.S.-led invasion toppled Saddam Hussein’s government, triggering a new era. The occupation and aftermath were marked by insurgency and sectarian civil war (Sunni–Shia violence) from 2004–2007. Violence peaked around 2006–07 but gradually subsided after a surge of U.S. troops and Sunni tribal alliances. Iraqis elected successive governments under a new 2005 constitution. The U.S. combat mission formally ended in 2011, though troops remained as trainers.
By 2013, a new threat emerged: the Islamic State (ISIS) seized large swaths of northern and western Iraq, capturing Mosul and other cities. Iraq’s Shia-led government, with Kurdish forces and U.S.-led air support, launched a counteroffensive. Mosul fell in 2017 and ISIS declared to have been militarily defeated. However, ISIS remnants continued guerrilla attacks in outlying areas. Over 2014–17, hundreds of thousands of people were displaced by war.
Since then, Iraq has focused on reconstruction, though sectarian rifts and corruption have persisted. Popular disillusionment sparked protests in 2015 and again in 2019 against unemployment, poor services, and political elite. These movements sometimes shut down cities (like Baghdad and southern provinces) and brought international attention.
In the 2020s, Iraqi politics stabilized somewhat under Prime Minister al-Sudani, who has operated as a caretaker pushing reforms while navigating pressures from Iran and Iraqis demanding change. Iraq has continued to receive international support for rebuilding infrastructure and government capacity. As of 2025, it is preparing for another parliamentary election amid regional tensions (the Middle East’s shifting alliances and issues like the Israel–Iran conflict have renewed foreign interest in Iraq’s role).
Culture
Iraqi culture is a rich tapestry woven from its diverse ethnic and religious communities and over five millennia of history. Iraqi society is largely cohesive but complex: extended families, tribal and clan affiliations, and religious solidarity coexist with national identity. Predominant language is Arabic (including various dialects), but Kurdish is widely spoken in the north. Other minority languages (e.g. Turkmen, Syriac) survive in local communities.
Religious traditions deeply influence culture. Most Iraqis are Muslim – Shia or Sunni – and major religious rituals (like Ashura commemorations by Shia pilgrims in Karbala and Najaf) fill the social calendar. Holy sites in Iraq (such as those in Najaf, Karbala, Samarra, and Kadhimiya) draw millions of pilgrims, shaping local economies and arts. Smaller faiths (such as Yazidi pagans in Sinjar or Christian communities in towns like Arbil and Mosul) maintain distinct customs and ceremonies.
Iraq has a storied literary and artistic heritage. In classical times, poets like Al-Mutanabbi (10th century) left a legacy of Arabic verse. Modern and contemporary Iraqi writers (for example, Sinan Antoon and Zainab Salbi) engage global audiences. Oral arts and music (including the maqam of Baghdad and Basra) were long celebrated, although they have suffered from war and censorship at times. Indeed, Islamist extremism led to the looting or destruction of cultural archives in the 2000s and 2010s. However, efforts are underway to reclaim and celebrate heritage: archaeological sites like Babylon and Nimrud have seen restoration work; museums (like Baghdad Museum) are being rebuilt; and international partnerships (e.g. with UNESCO) aim to recover looted artifacts, such as the famous Gilgamesh tablet returned in 2021.
Traditional crafts and cuisine remain important cultural markers. Carpets, woven textiles, and ceramics produced in cities like Samarra or Sulaymaniyah showcase local designs. Architecture includes historic mosques (the spiral minaret of Samarra, the golden dome of the Imam Ali Shrine) and the ancient mud-brick citadel of Erbil, all of which reflect distinct periods. In daily life, many Iraqis still wear customary dress: men may wear a long robe (dishdasha) and headscarf, women in veils or modern attire depending on region and preference.
Iraqi cuisine blends Arab and Persian influences: staples include flatbreads, lamb or chicken stews, rice dishes flavored with spices, and sweet treats made with dates or nuts. Social customs (like sharing tea and meals) emphasize hospitality. Despite conflict and upheaval, cultural festivals and new artistic movements have begun re-emerging. For example, a Babylon International Festival (music and arts) took place in 2022, and independent theaters and galleries operate in Baghdad and Erbil. Iraqis also enjoy sports like football (soccer) and have an avid and youth-oriented media.
Environment and Ecology
Iraq’s environment ranges from cradle-of-civilization wetlands to parched deserts, but it is under severe strain. One acute challenge is the water crisis. Iraq depends entirely on the Tigris and Euphrates rivers for fresh water, but both rivers have diminished flows. Upstream dam construction (in Turkey, Syria, and Iran), years of drought, and rising temperatures have greatly reduced river-water availability. Cities like Basra in the south have suffered from polluted and salty water; crops and marshlands have dried. Salinization of soil (from seawater pushed up the weakened Shatt al-Arab) has devastated date palm groves and honey-producing flora, causing a collapse in beekeeping and agriculture along the southern marshes.
In response, Iraq has sought regional cooperation and domestic adaptation. In 2025 it signed a draft agreement with Turkey to better manage shared river flow. Domestically, farmers are shifting to salt-tolerant crops (e.g. drought-resistant sidr trees) and improved irrigation. The government also unveiled a national climate plan in 2023 – pledging renewable energy expansion, modernized farming, reforestation (planting 5 million trees), and combating desertification – aiming to mitigate climate impacts by 2030.
Climate change worsens other environmental problems. Iraq experiences more frequent heat waves and sandstorms. Desertification is advancing, turning marginal grazing lands into blown sand. Urban air pollution in Baghdad, Basra and other cities remains high due to vehicle emissions, industry, and seasonal dust. In marshland areas, efforts to refill the historic wetlands (drained under Saddam in the 1990s) have had partial success: some marshes have recovered since 2003, reviving wildlife (water buffalo, migratory birds) and Marsh Arab communities, but many wetland areas still need restoration and water.
Iraq hosts a variety of wildlife adapted to its climates: gazelles, hares, wild boar, various reptiles, and rich birdlife (pelicans, flamingos in the south). However, habitat loss, hunting and pollution have threatened many species. For instance, the rare Mesopotamian fallow deer is critically endangered, and wetland species depend on returning waters.
Energy production and war have also harmed the environment. The 1991 Gulf War led to massive oil fires and spills; during the 2003 invasion, looting of infrastructure caused local contamination; more recently, oilfield sabotage (by armed groups) has triggered oil spills in deserts. Efforts at clean-up are ongoing but challenging.
Recognizing these issues, Iraq is slowly investing in environmental protection. Besides climate initiatives, the country is exploring renewable energy: as noted, new solar parks in desert areas (like Karbala’s plant) will help cut carbon emissions from its power sector. Iraq has also expressed interest in global climate talks and has local programs for waste management and pollution control in big cities. However, progress is uneven, hampered by funding shortfalls and security priorities. Overall, Iraq is one of the world’s most climate-vulnerable nations – it ranks high on indices of climate risk – making environmental policy a critical issue for its future development.
Significance: Iraq sits at a historic crossroads. As the location of ancient Mesopotamia, it gave the world writing, lawcodes, and early urban civilization. Today, it has the Middle East’s fifth-largest economy (driven by oil) and is one of the region’s most geopolitically important states. Its stability – and that of neighboring countries like Iran, Turkey, and the Gulf states – is deeply affected by developments inside Iraq. Oil-rich and populous, Iraq’s political and economic trajectory influences global energy markets and regional security. Simultaneously, it boasts unique cultural heritage and increasingly globalized urban society. However, decades of conflict, social divisions, and environmental pressures have left Iraq in a precarious rebuilding phase. The country’s progress depends on how it manages sectarian reconciliation, economic diversification, and climate resilience – goals that will shape Iraq’s role in the 21st century.