Eswatini
| Eswatini | |
|---|---|
| |
| Type | Country |
| Key terms | landlocked, subtropical climate, absolute monarchy |
| Related | Southern Africa, South Africa, Mozambique |
| Examples | Mbabane, Lobamba, sugarcane industry |
| Domain | Geography |
| Wikidata | Q1050 |
Eswatini (formerly Swaziland) is a small landlocked kingdom in southern Africa. It lies within 175 km north–south and 130 km east–west, bordered on three sides by South Africa and on the east by Mozambique. In 2018 King Mswati III formally changed the country’s name to Eswatini (siSwati for “land of the Swazi”), reflecting the Swazi people’s identity. Covering about 17,364 km², Eswatini has a varied landscape and climate. Its society is centered on a monarchy (King Mswati III, in power since 1986, is among the world’s few remaining absolute monarchs, meaning he retains final authority over government). The country’s roughly 1.1 million people (2023) live mostly in rural areas, speak siSwati and English, and follow a mix of Christian and indigenous faiths. Eswatini faces economic and social challenges: most people live in subsistence conditions, unemployment and poverty rates are high, and it has the world’s highest HIV/AIDS prevalence. At the same time, it preserves a rich Swazi cultural heritage of music, dance and festivals. The administrative capital is Mbabane (about 95,000 people), the royal and legislative capital is Lobamba, and the largest city is Manzini (about 120,000).
Geography and Climate
Eswatini is almost entirely mountainous or hilly. Three broad zones run roughly northeast–southwest. The Highveld in the west consists of steep mountains and escarpments reaching up to 1,862 m (at Emlembe, on the South African border) – this region has the coolest climate. East of this lie the Middleveld plateaus and rolling hills (average elevation ~700–1,200 m) – home to Eswatini’s largest towns (Manzini and Lobamba) and sugar-producing valleys. The eastern Lubombo Mountains rise to about 800–1,000 m along the Mozambique border. Below these, the Lowveld sloping plains descend to 21 m above sea level at the Great Usutu (Maputo) River in the east. Eswatini’s terrain contains pine and eucalyptus plantations (especially in the Highveld) and fertile river valleys; rock outcrops and isolated peaks are common. Because of the rugged interior, population is uneven – most Swazis live in mid- and low-altitude valleys and basins, linked by good all-weather roads to South Africa and Mozambique.
The climate is subtropical with marked wet and dry seasons. Summers (roughly October–March) are hot and rainy, warmed by northerly monsoon winds: average daytime highs exceed 30 °C in the Lowveld, lower up-country. Winters (June–August) are cool and dry; frost is common in the Highveld, and temperatures often fall below 10 °C at night, though snow is extremely rare. Annual rainfall varies from about 600–700 mm in dry eastern lowlands to 1,000–1,400 mm in the mountains. Most rain falls in intense summer thunderstorms; recurrent droughts are a major hazard for farmers. Conversely, heavy summer rains can cause flooding and soil erosion, especially where vegetation is sparse. These climatic conditions support savanna grasslands and woodlands at lower elevations, and montane forests on the higher slopes. Three Quarters of the land (about 68%) is used for agriculture (crops or grazing), and roughly 32% remains forested (mainly commercial pine and hands of natural forest on mountains).
Demographics and Society
Eswatini’s population is young and growing slowly. The United Nations (2023) puts the population at around 1.13 million, with a growth rate under 1% per year. The median age is only about 24½ years. Over half the people are under age 25. Roughly 25–30% of Swazis live in urban areas – principally Manzini, Mbabane, and Lobamba – while the rest live in small rural homesteads. Because of the terrain, many villages lie in sheltered valleys or along rivers. Rural livelihoods center on subsistence farming: families often keep maize, sorghum or vegetables for food and raise cattle and goats. Even so, about one-third of households face chronic food insecurity in poor seasons. Remittances from Swazis working in South African cities or mines also support many families.
The country’s single predominant ethnic group is the Swazi (siSwati-speaking), a Nguni Bantu people closely related to the Zulu. Perhaps 80–85% of the population identify as Swazi. There are small minorities of other African ethnicities (for example, some Zulu, Tsonga, Sotho) and a few persons of European or Asian descent. Languages: siSwati (sometimes spelled Swati or Swazi) is the mother tongue of nearly all and an official language; English (introduced under colonial rule) is the other official language, used in government, education and business. Zulu is mutually intelligible with siSwati, and a few people speak Portuguese (reflecting proximity to Mozambique).
Religion: Most Swazis are Christian (about 90%). A distinctive feature is the prominence of Zionist-inspired churches, which mix Christian beliefs with African customary practices; about 40% of people attend these Protestant churches. Another 20% are Roman Catholic, and the rest are in various Protestant denominations (Anglican, Methodist, etc.). A small Muslim community (around 2%) and indigenous spiritual practitioners also exist, along with minorities of Hindus, Baha’i and others. Traditional beliefs – such as reverence for ancestors and royal ancestors – often blend with Christianity.
Basic social indicators are improving but remain low. Eswatini’s literacy rate is around 85–90%, reflecting broad access to primary school, and there is a university and numerous mission and private secondary schools. School attendance is high through primary level, though secondary and tertiary attendance is more limited. Nonetheless, education quality is uneven, and many young Swazis leave school early to work. Child mortality has declined, and infant vaccination rates are fairly high. However, health outcomes are weakened by HIV/AIDS: at its peak around 2000–2010, HIV afflicted over a quarter of adults, and more than a third of pregnant women tested positive. This pandemic has cost many lives and left tens of thousands of children orphaned. As a result, Eswatini’s life expectancy is low — about 60 years (2023), well below the global average, and infant and maternal mortality rates are among the highest in the region. The national HIV infection rate has fallen in recent years thanks to intensified treatment, but it remains very high (around 27% of adults). Tuberculosis and malaria are present (with TB increased by HIV); hygiene, malnutrition and limited healthcare (especially in rural areas) are ongoing public health issues.
Approximately 20% of Eswatini’s people are undernourished at some point each year, especially in remote areas when drought hits. Urban areas have basic utilities: over 80% of households have electricity and improved water, but many rural households still lack reliable water or sanitation. The people’s average income is low and unequally shared: surveys suggest well over half of the population lives below the country’s own poverty line (which itself is low by international standards), and income inequality (Gini index) is among the highest globally. Unemployment is a chronic problem, officially above 20%, and is far higher if underemployment is counted. Youth unemployment is exceptionally severe (over 50%). These social stresses – poverty, unemployment and health crises – are widely viewed as Eswatini’s most urgent demographic challenges.
Despite these hardships, Swazi society is tightly knit by traditional bonds. Extended families often farm together on communal land (most rural land is held in trust for the nation by the king and distributed by chiefs). Cultural customs, chiefly authority and kinship ties still shape daily life. Men typically inherit land and lineage, though mothers play important roles in family networks. Polygamy is legal and practiced by some men, including the king, who traditionally has many wives. Chiefs and local councils (based on Swazi custom) remain influential in rural governance.
History
Eswatini’s history traces back to early human habitation and the formation of the Swazi nation. Archaeological evidence – rock paintings and ancient mining sites – shows people lived in the region for tens of thousands of years (Khoisan hunter-gatherers, then Bantu-speaking farmers from around 1000–2000 AD). By the 18th century the Dlamini clan of Nguni origin consolidated power under King Ngwane III (c.1745) and founded the Swazi kingdom. Under Ngwane’s successors, the Swazi gradually moved into their present territory (then often called KaNgwane). In the 19th century King Sobhuza I (r. c.1780–1815) and especially King Mswati II (r. 1840–1868) expanded the kingdom while resisting invasions from neighboring Zulu and Ndwandwe states. Mswati II’s reign gave the country its name (Swaziland) and defined much of its modern extent. By the late 1800s European colonizers and Boers were encroaching in southern Africa. In 1881 Britain and the Transvaal Boers recognized Swazi independence by treaty, but after the Second Boer War (1899–1902) Britain put Swaziland under its protection. In 1903 Swaziland became a British protectorate (a status known as a high commission territory) alongside other territories like Basutoland (Lesotho) and Bechuanaland (Botswana). The Swazi king retained his role, and traditional structures were largely preserved.
Sobhuza II (born 1899) became king as an infant in 1899 and reigned through this entire period and beyond. In the late 1940s he negotiated greater self-rule for Swaziland. In 1968 Swaziland gained full independence within the Commonwealth, with Sobhuza as monarch. A Westminster-style constitution and elected legislature were introduced, but only a few years later, in 1973, Sobhuza II revoked the constitution. He declared a state of emergency, banned political parties, and assumed supreme power in law and custom. From 1973 until his death in 1982, Sobhuza ruled by decree, overseeing a blend of traditional authority and nominal modern government.
After Sobhuza’s death there was a regency, and the late king’s son Makhosetive was crowned King Mswati III in 1986. Mswati III’s reign coincided with the end of apartheid in neighboring South Africa; Eswatini maintained close ties with both regimes. In the 1990s and 2000s, under pressure at home and abroad, King Mswati introduced limited reforms. A new constitution was enacted in 2005, creating a parliament (an appointed Senate and a partly elected House) and a prime minister’s office, but it preserved the king’s overriding powers and continued to bar party politics in parliamentary elections.
In recent years Eswatini has seen sporadic unrest. Many citizens, especially youths, have demanded democracy and jobs. The pro-democracy People’s United Democratic Movement (PUDEMO) – although banned from contesting elections – has become a vocal opposition force. In 2021 nationwide protests over economic conditions and calls for political reform erupted; security forces violently suppressed them, resulting in numerous deaths and injuries. Since then, the monarchy remains firmly in control, with key posts (prime minister, ministers, top civil service) appointed by the king. In 2018, on the 50th anniversary of independence and his own birthday, Mswati announced the country’s new name, Eswatini, reviving its precolonial name in the Swazi language. This change was popular domestically as a move away from the colonial-era name Swaziland.
As of 2025, Eswatini remains a monarchy under Mswati III. In late 2023 a new prime minister was appointed after parliamentary elections (all candidates ran on individual merit in “tinkhundla” constituencies). Political parties are still not permitted to field candidates. Critics charge that little substantive reform has taken place: the royal family and its supporters continue to dominate politics and business, while civil liberties and media freedom remain restrained. The government reports economic planning and some social programs (including aggressive HIV treatment campaigns) but struggles with poverty and unemployment. Despite controversies, the monarchy and traditional culture remain central to national identity, and Swazis continue to celebrate their king and customs through annual festivals and ceremonies.
Governance
Eswatini’s government is a unique hybrid of traditional monarchy and limited modern institutions. Executive: King Mswati III is head of state and government. He presides over the cabinet and has final authority on policy. The king appoints the prime minister (currently Mpm Sebastiao Dlamini, as of 2023) and all other key ministers, though legislative endorsement is required for budget bills. A Council of Advisors (the Liqoqo) – a customary council of chiefs and royals – advises the king on matters of Swazi law, custom and national strategy. Ministers and officials often include members of the royal family or appointed elites.
Legislature: The 2005 constitution established a bicameral parliament, but with limited power. The House of Assembly has 65 seats: 55 members are elected every five years from regional tinkhundla constituencies (nonpartisan local councils), and 10 are appointed by the king. There is also a Speaker and deputy speaker. The Senate has 30 members: 10 are elected by the House from people nominated by the king, and 20 are appointed by the king. Most bills must be passed by both houses and signed by the king, who may assent or veto (vetoes can be overridden by special majorities). In practice, the monarch heavily influences legislation through appointments and traditional authority. Political parties are explicitly barred from participating in elections; all candidates run as individuals. (Several small parties exist and advocate change, but they must operate unofficially or in exile.)
Judiciary: Eswatini maintains a dual legal system. The formal system (established under colonial law) includes the Court of Appeal, the High Court and lower magistrate’s courts. These courts try serious civil and criminal cases under a mainly common-law tradition. At the same time, Swazi National Courts apply customary law in cases involving only Swazi citizens on matters like marriage, inheritance and some minor crimes. Traditional chiefs often sit as magistrates in these courts. If a case in the National Courts conflicts with the constitution or statutory law, it can be appealed to the formal judiciary.
Local Government: The country is divided into four regions (Hhohho, Manzini, Shiselweni, Lubombo), each headed by an administrator appointed by the king. Below that are tinkhundla (swazi for “constituencies”), which serve as local government and electoral units. Chiefs and headmen (traditional authorities) govern villages and allocate Swazi Nation Land (communal land). Municipal governing structures for towns exist but with most land still under royal trusteeship.
Foreign Relations: Eswatini aligns closely with its neighbors and international partners. It is a member of the African Union, Southern African Development Community (SADC), Southern African Customs Union (SACU) and the Commonwealth. It maintains friendly relations with South Africa and Mozambique, and historically with neighboring Zimbabwe and Zambia. Notably, Eswatini is the only African nation that recognizes Taiwan (the Republic of China) diplomatically instead of the People’s Republic of China. (Eswatini uses Taiwan’s aid and maintains a Taiwanese embassy, drawing occasional international attention.) Eswatini also has relations with the United States, the European Union, and other countries, focusing on development aid. It receives security assistance from Western and Indian allies and training from both China and (historically) apartheid-era South Africa – though it has no national army (security is provided by Swazi armed forces and police).
Civil Rights: Political rights and media freedom are limited. Freedom House classifies Eswatini as “not free,” and press freedom indexes rank it low. The government tightly controls broadcasting and broadly constrains independent journalism. State media dominate TV and radio; private TV and radio require royal permission. Journalists often self-censor on political issues. The king’s daughters and close relatives hold key posts in the Information Ministry and state media, and protest demonstrations have been banned. In recent years, international organizations have criticized human rights abuses in Eswatini: activists have been arrested or intimidated, and security forces used lethal force during the 2021 riots. In 2024–2025 there were high-profile incidents (an opposition leader’s poisoning, and a human rights lawyer’s murder) that drew international concern and highlighted flaws in transparency and rule of law. Eswatini’s leaders generally deny wrongdoing; they maintain that public order and tradition require firm control. On the other hand, some Swazis do push for gradual reform through the approved channels (courts and parliamentary mechanisms). For now, the consensus is that the monarchy remains entrenched, with any change likely coming from the king’s own initiative rather than full democratic transition.
Economy
Eswatini has a mixed economy that is closely integrated with South Africa’s. Officially classified as lower-middle-income, it faces deep development challenges. Size and growth: GDP is roughly 4–5 billion (nominal) or about 11 billion at purchasing-power parity (2021 data); per-capita income is around 3,900 (nominal, 2024) or about 8,900 (PPP, 2021). Growth has been modest: after contracting during the COVID-19 pandemic, the economy grew about 3–4% in 2023–2024. Inflation is moderate (around 3–5%). Key structural constraints are a narrow industrial base, high public debt, and reliance on a few export commodities.
Sectors: Services account for roughly half of GDP. This includes government administration (public sector is a major employer), retail and trade, finance, and telecommunications. Industry contributes about one-third. Notable industries are soft drink concentrate production (Eswatini hosts a major Coca-Cola bottling plant), sugar milling and refining (Royal Swazi Sugar Corporation is the largest single company), forestry and wood pulp (planted pine and eucalyptus support timber and pulp exports), textiles and garments (a formerly important export industry that has shrunk), and mining (small-scale coal mining exports to South Africa and a reopening of iron ore/stone extraction). Manufacturing also includes beverages, metal fabrication and building materials. Agriculture uses about two-thirds of the land but only ~10% of GDP. Major crops are sugarcane (the largest cash crop and export), maize and sorghum (staple foods), citrus fruits, and cotton. Cattle ranching and dairy farming are locally significant. Most farms are small and family-operated, often on communal Swazi Nation Land; only a few large commercial farms exist. Arable farming is constrained by erratic rains and small plots.
Trade: Eswatini is heavily reliant on international trade – exports and imports each amount to nearly half of GDP. South Africa is by far the main partner: well over 80% of Eswatini’s exports go to South Africa, and even most imports arrive via South African ports and trucks. Exports include sugar (raw and refined), wood pulp and lumber, soft drink concentrate, and more recently electricity (Eswatini is a net exporter of some power), as well as some minerals. Imports are dominated by machinery, vehicles, fuel, chemicals and foodstuffs (notably wheat flour) needed for the domestic market. Because Eswatini belongs to the Southern African Customs Union (SACU) and the Common Monetary Area (CMA), it shares a customs regime and a common currency arrangement with South Africa and two other neighbors (Lesotho and Namibia). The national currency is the lilangeni (plural emalangeni), which is fixed at par with and freely interchangeable with the South African rand. In practice, the rand circulates alongside the lilangeni and is widely accepted. SACU payments – a share of customs and excise proceeds collected by the union – provide a large portion of government revenue (often around 15–20% of GDP). These payments can vary and any drop (as happened in some recent years) strains the budget.
Labor and standards of living: Formal employment is scarce. Official unemployment is around 24%, but true under- and hidden unemployment is much higher, given widespread subsistence work. Youth unemployment (ages 15–24) exceeds 50% (World Bank estimate), creating social stress. Wages are low by international standards, and many Swazis rely on remittances. Indeed, migration is important: a significant number of Swazi men work seasonally or permanently in South African mines, construction, or factories, sending money home. Poverty is high: over half the population lives below the national poverty line. Inequality is acute (for example, the richest 10% of households earn several times more than the bottom 10%). Many families, especially in rural areas, struggle with sporadic food shortages.
Government budget and debt: Public finances have been under pressure. Although SACU revenues help, the government typically runs a deficit of a few percent of GDP. In fiscal year 2024/25 the deficit was about 1.3% of GDP. Government debt has been rising and is now roughly 40% of GDP. External reserves are modest and have occasionally been drawn down to pay external bills. Taxes and customs duties provide most domestic revenue. Foreign aid – from Taiwan and agencies like the World Bank, IMF, and USAID – supplements the budget, especially for health (HIV programs) and infrastructure.
Key challenges: Eswatini’s economy is constrained by its small size, limited resources and dependence on South Africa. Droughts often cause crop failures and reduce rural incomes. The formal sector cannot absorb the growing number of young adults entering the labor market. Economic diversification has been slow; as a result, a few sectors (sugar, forestry, drink concentrate) dominate exports. Poor infrastructure in rural areas (roads, internet) hinders development. The government is aware of these issues and has sought to promote tourism, manufacturing and value-added agriculture. For example, the tourism sector – leveraging wildlife parks and cultural festivals – is being developed for revenue and jobs. In manufacturing, there has been interest in textile and garment factories (though many such businesses have struggled in recent years). However, growth rates have remained modest, and living standards have not risen quickly. On the positive side, Eswatini’s financial system is stable (thanks largely to the currency peg and prudent banking), and inflation is relatively low. Electricity expansion, partly through a new dam project, and planned road and telecom improvements aim to support the economy. The country continues to rely on economic integration with its neighbors, especially South Africa, to drive growth through trade and investment.
Culture and Society
Swazi culture is rich and centered on communal life and tradition. Identity: The Swazi people (BaSwati) emphasize loyalty to the clan and the throne. Traditional values – respect for elders, community solidarity, and royal ceremonies – shape social norms. Polygamy (having more than one wife) is legal and practiced by some men; the king is famous for his many wives and homes. Ancestral spirits (Emadloti) are honored in ceremonies. The king (the Ngwenyama, or “Lion”) and the Queen Mother (Ndlovukati, or “She-Elephant”) are revered figures. The royal family sponsors and participates in national rites.
Language and arts: Swazis speak siSwati, a tonal Bantu language related to Zulu. Nearly everyone also learns English in school; government business and higher education are bilingual. Folklore, storytelling and oral traditions remain important. Traditional music is drum-based; songs accompany dances and rituals. Crafts such as weaving, beadwork and pottery are widespread, often made by women for daily use or sale. Music and dance play key roles in festivals, with performers in colorful tribal attire. The arts preserve history and folklore – for example, praise songs recount the deeds of past kings. Modern influences (Western pop music, movies, the internet) are strongest in urban youth culture, but many Swazis also compose contemporary songs blending local language with global sounds.
Festivals and ceremonies: Eswatini is known for its spectacular annual events. The Reed Dance (Umhlanga) is among the most famous. Each late summer (around September), thousands of unmarried girls and young women from across the country present cut reeds at the queen mother’s royal village. They perform choreographed dances and songs as a tribute to the royalty; the ceremony is a rite of passage symbolizing chastity and national unity. The Reed Dance is widely covered by media and also draws foreign tourists, showcasing traditional costumes and culture.
Another major festival is Incwala (Kingship ceremony), held at the year’s end or start. Incwala celebrates the first fruits of harvest and the king’s mystic rituals. Over several days, the king ‘slays’ a specially chosen bull in front of the biblical-style royal enclosure, believed to ensure national renewal. Elaborate rituals follow, with dancing, drumming, and sacred Spear rituals reaffirming the bond between king and people. Other cultural events include traditional weddings (rich in ritual), Umkhosi weLusekwane (vest-net ceremony for young warriors) and onei-Ishikishovo (royal car rally).
Daily life and society: Most Swazis live in homesteads of beehive huts (rondavels) grouped in villages around a chief’s kraal. A typical rural household may include a married couple and their children, sometimes with additional wives or extended kin. Arable land around the village is cultivated communally or individually; cattle graze or tether on outskirts. In towns, housing is a mix of tin-roof shacks, brick homes and apartments. Shops and markets sell staples (corn meal, sugar, vegetable oil) and luxury imports. Street vendors sell grilled meat (braai), corn on the cob and traditional beer (umqombothi). Many rural Swazis farm small plots of maize, beans or groundnuts, and herd goats or cattle. Women often tend gardens and fetch water from wells or communal taps.
Cuisine: The staple food is corn porridge (isitshwala or ubhontshisi when made from sorghum), typically served with meat or bean stew and vegetables. Beef and lamb are highly prized, reflecting the importance of cattle. Traditional dishes include grilled goat, roasted corn, and stews made with peanuts or pumpkins. Bread is common in towns, reflecting European influence. Local fruits include mangos, guavas and citrus. Swazi meals are often communal – families or neighbors share food at gatherings or festivals.
Education and media: Primary education is widely attended, and Eswatini has a university and several teacher colleges. Literacy is relatively high by regional standards (over 80%), and schooling is bilingual (English/Swati). Cultural transmission occurs through both school and community: many Swazi children learn Nguni proverbs and songs at home or at ceremonies. There is one state-run radio (Radio Eswatini) and one main TV station (Eswatini TV); these, along with a few weekly newspapers (some government-influenced, others independent), serve most information needs. Internet and mobile phone usage are growing, linking Swazis to global media. Social media and foreign programming (via cable/satellite) are popular among youth, though football and news still attract large domestic audiences on TV.
Sports and recreation: Football (soccer) is the most popular sport; Eswatini has national leagues and an underdog national team. Netball and athletics (track) are also widely played by both students and adults. Rugby and cricket have some following, especially in schools and among expatriates, but they are far less prominent. Traditional games like Amabhube (a target game with clay balls) and stick fighting are part of village festivals. Social life often centers on communal beer gatherings (incwala nightclubs) and family events; men may gather to watch sport or play dominoes. Christian churches (African and mainline) are active too, with services on Sundays and midweek Bible study.
Environment and Natural Heritage
Eswatini’s environment is ecologically diverse for its size. Altitudinal gradients create distinct habitats: montane forest and grassland in the Highveld, miombo and mopane woodlands in the Middleveld, and dry savanna in the Lowveld. The country is part of the Maputaland hotspot of biodiversity. Many wildlife species typical of southern Africa thrive here. Notably, Eswatini is home to a healthy population of white and black rhinoceros (thanks to intensive protection), as well as elephants, buffalos, giraffes, zebras and various antelope (eland, kudu, impala, etc.). Large carnivores include lions (reintroduced or free-roaming from Kruger NP) and spotted hyenas. Smaller animals include warthogs, jackals, monkeys and diverse reptiles. Over 400 bird species have been recorded, from the ground-hornbill to migratory storks. Some reptiles and amphibians are endemic or rare. The Ngwenya Hills preserve a variety of endemic plants on their quartzite ridges.
Roughly 4% of Eswatini’s land is officially protected. Hlane Royal National Park (about 300 km²) is the largest park; it safeguards big game and wetlands. Family-friendly Mlilwane Wildlife Sanctuary (44 km²) near Mbabane is the oldest reserve, known for easy wildlife viewing on foot or horseback. Mkhaya Game Reserve specializes in saving rhinos and soft-hoofed game, with an ongoing sanctuary breeding program and anti-poaching patrols. Mountainous Malolotja Nature Reserve offers wilderness hiking around its dramatic peaks and waterfalls. Other reserves (Phophonyane, Nkhalashane, Ndzindza) protect smaller habitats at high or mid-elevations. Private game farms and community conservancies supplement public areas, offering safari experiences and sharing tourism income with local people.
Eswatini’s remaining forests (about 30% of land) are divided between natural forest and commercial plantations. Natural montane forest survives mainly on steep slopes (licitily conserved for watershed protection); planted pine and eucalyptus provide much timber and pulp for industry and export. Much of the country’s watershed, including that of the Usutu River, has good tree cover, which helps protect water supply for agriculture. The Maguga Dam (completed 2001 on the Komati River) and the more recent Mnjoli Dam project (2020s) store water for irrigation and drinking supply in dry seasons. Some hydropower is generated from these, supplementing locally produced electricity. Otherwise, Eswatini buys most of its power from South Africa’s grid (though it sells back a surplus when local coal plants run at capacity).
Environmental challenges: Eswatini shares many problems of the region. Deforestation for firewood, charcoal and farmland has reduced native woodlands (especially in the lowveld). When land is overexploited, soil erosion occurs quickly on the hilly slopes, which leads to muddy silt in rivers. Overgrazing on communal pastures also degrades soils. Climate variability means frequent droughts (often every few years) threaten subsistence farmers; rain-fed maize and sorghum crops can fail, causing food shortages. Conversely, when rains come heavy, flash floods and landslides can damage roads and homes in mountain areas. Water is just sufficient for the population under normal conditions, but supply can become scarce in drought; some rural communities rely on hand-dug wells or seasonal streams.
Wildlife and conservation: Hunting for bushmeat and ivory was historically a serious threat; in response, anti-poaching units have been strengthened. Rhino poaching, which devastated populations in the early 2000s, has been nearly halted by intense ranger patrols and community involvement. Laws now prohibit hunting big game for sport (except by license), and commercial wildlife ranching has become a controlled industry (some landowners keep game for tourist sport charters). Agricultural expansion and human settlement fragment wildlife habitat, but corridors remain between reserves and Kruger NP in South Africa. National parks serve both ecological and economic roles: they conserve species and attract tourists (safari lodges, guided walks). Ecotourism is promoted as a way to fund conservation and provide jobs to rural areas.
Climate change and policy: Eswatini is a signatory to major global environmental treaties (UNFCCC Paris Agreement, Convention on Biological Diversity, etc.). The government has submitted plans for climate adaptation, focusing on water management, drought-resistant crops, and reforestation. Dams like Mpakeni (for irrigation) aim to mitigate drought effects. There is growing use of solar energy, both small off-grid panels in villages and a few larger solar farms, to diversify from grid electricity. Waste management and pollution are relatively modest by global standards, though urban areas produce more trash and runoff than the infrastructure can easily handle. In sum, while Eswatini’s natural environment is still relatively intact in many parts, it faces pressures from population, agriculture and economic needs. Continued efforts in park management, reforestation, and sustainable agriculture are seen as essential to protect its biodiversity and ensure long-term water and food security.
Eswatini’s significance today lies in its blend of traditional monarchy and modern statehood, its natural heritage in a small package, and its ongoing struggles to translate a stable cultural identity into broad prosperity. Visitors are drawn by the country’s scenic hills, wildlife reserves and cultural festivals, while investors look to its strategic trade relationships. As it moves forward, Eswatini must balance respect for its Swazi traditions with pressures to open its economy and polity.