Bahrain
| Bahrain | |
|---|---|
| |
| Type | Country |
| Key terms | geography & climate, governance & history, culture & environment |
| Related | Persian Gulf, Gulf Cooperation Council, Middle East |
| Examples | Manama, oil refining & finance, Bahrain Grand Prix |
| Domain | Countries |
| Wikidata | Q398 |
Bahrain, officially the Kingdom of Bahrain, is a small island country in Western Asia. It sits in the Persian Gulf off the eastern coast of Saudi Arabia. The name Bahrain (Arabic al-Baḥrayn) literally means “two seas,” a reference to its marine geography The country is an archipelago of about 30 islands; the largest is Bahrain Island, which hosts the capital, Manama. Smaller islands include Muharraq (site of the old capital) and Sitra. Bahrain covers roughly 780–790 square kilometers in total making it one of the world’s smallest countries by land area. It is connected to the Saudi mainland by the King Fahd Causeway (a 25 km bridge built in the 1980s). Despite its size, Bahrain has played a significant historical and economic role in the region. It is a high-income economy in the Gulf and a financial and commercial hub, while its society blends traditional Islamic and tribal culture with modern, urban lifestyles.
Historical Context and Evolution
Bahrain has an ancient history. Archaeological evidence shows human habitation since the Bronze Age. In antiquity it was the center of the Dilmun civilization, a prosperous trading society (circa 2nd millennium BCE) that linked Mesopotamia (Sumer) with the Indus Valley Through the centuries Bahrain (then called Dilmun or Tilmun) was ruled by various Persian and Arab dynasties and was known to Greek and Roman geographers. By the early Middle Ages it became part of the Islamic world. In the early 1500s the Portuguese seized Bahrain and controlled it until 1602. That same year local Persians reclaimed the islands, ruling until the late 18th century. In 1783 the ‘Al Khalifa family of the Sunni Al-Utub tribe conquered Bahrain from Persian rule; the Al Khalifa dynasty still rules today.
During the 19th and early 20th centuries, Bahrain’s rulers entered treaties with Britain. From 1861 to 1971 Bahrain was a British protectorate – Britain controlled Bahrain’s defense and foreign relations. Oil was discovered in Bahrain in 1932, the first such find in the Gulf region, though Bahrain’s reserves have always been modest. Oil wealth did bring rapid modernization: early oil revenues were invested in infrastructure, schools, and hospitals.
Bahrain became fully independent on August 15, 1971, when British withdrawal from the Gulf prompted it to declare sovereignty The newly independent kingdom joined the United Nations and later co-founded the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) in 1981. Its first written constitution was enacted in 1973, establishing a National Assembly, but clashes between the ruling family and the legislature led to the assembly’s dissolution in 1975. For much of the late 20th century Bahrain was an absolute monarchy under the emir (ruler) Isa bin Salman Al Khalifa, who ruled from 1961 until his death in 1999.
In 1999 Isa died and his son Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa became emir; he quickly promised reforms. A 2001 national referendum overwhelmingly approved the National Action Charter, paving the way for a new constitution. In 2002 Hamad changed his title from Emir to King and promulgated a new constitution. This restored Bahrain’s parliament (the National Assembly) after a 26-year hiatus. Since 2002 Bahrain has held regular parliamentary elections (though voter turnout and participation have varied). Women in Bahrain were granted the vote and the right to run for office beginning in 2002 – Bahrain was the first Gulf state to do so.
The new constitution created a bicameral legislature: a 40-member elected Council of Representatives (lower house) and a 40-member appointed Consultative Council (upper house). The king retains broad powers, including appointing the prime minister, cabinet, and half of the legislature. Political power remains concentrated in the ruling Al Khalifa family. King Hamad also initiated social and economic reforms, such as expanding education and promoting private enterprise. However, Bahrain has also faced political tension. The majority of native Bahrainis are Ohra Shia Muslims, while the ruling family and much of the political elite are Sunni. Managing this sectarian divide has been a challenge. Broad pro-reform protests during the 1990s led to some liberalizations. Further unrest erupted in 2011 (part of the Arab Spring wave) as demonstrators demanded greater political rights. The government, with help from some GCC neighbors, reasserted control after a brief uprising. Since then reforms have continued slowly but the basic monarchical structure remains.
Geography and Climate
Geographically, Bahrain is mostly flat and arid. The islands lie in the shallow, sheltered Gulf of Bahrain, an inlet of the Persian Gulf. Bahrain Island (the main island) is relatively low-lying, with most of the land as desert plain. A small central plateau or escarpment rises gently toward the island’s southwest. The highest elevation is Jabal ad Dukhan (meaning “Mountain of Smoke”) at only about 122–134 meters above sea level Surrounding islands (such as Muharraq, Sitra, and Umm al-Naasan) are even lower and largely flat. Notable features include salt flats and “sabkha” (supratidal salt pans) along the coasts. Bahrain’s northern islands are slightly more fertile; historically these supported date palms and some agriculture thanks to natural springs.
Bahrain’s coastline is extensively developed. Humid mangrove patches and mudflats fringe parts of the coast but much of the shore has been built up with cities, ports, industrial zones, and, increasingly, new artificial land. Bahrain has undertaken large-scale land reclamation projects since the mid-20th century. For example, Muharraq Island (near Manama) has been expanded by dredging and infill. In total, Bahrain’s land area grew from about 668 km² in the 1960s to nearly 777 km² by 2021 Some new projects (luxury island resorts and housing developments) have roughly doubled the country’s original land area over recent decades These reclaimed islands have raised living space and investment opportunities but at environmental cost: dredging and filling have disrupted coastal habitats and reduced traditional shallow-water fishing grounds.
The climate of Bahrain is extremely arid and subtropical. It has hot desert conditions. Summers (June–September) are very hot and humid; average high temperatures regularly reach 38–40°C or more Humidity from the surrounding Gulf can make summer heat oppressive. Winters (December–February) are mild, with daytime highs around 17–20°C. Rainfall is minimal and unpredictable. Annual precipitation averages only about 80–90 mm (3–4 inches), mostly falling in a few showers during winter Strong winds and dust storms periodically blow in from the Arabian Desert, especially in spring. In sum, Bahrain’s environment is one of vast sunshine, high evaporation, and scarce fresh water.
Demographics
Bahrain has a diverse population of roughly 1.6–1.7 million (2025 estimate) It is one of the most densely populated countries in the world. The population grew rapidly in the late 20th and early 21st centuries due to high birth rates and an influx of foreign workers. Almost the entire population is urbanized – about 89% live in cities and towns Major population centers besides the capital Manama (around 160,000) include Al Muharraq (historical port city), Riffa (a large city in the interior), Hamad Town, Isa Town, and Sitra. Much of the population expansion since 1990 has been in modern planned areas and suburban districts.
Citizens and expatriates: Bahrainis themselves (citizens) make up only about 50% (or less) of the total population The rest are foreigners on work or resident visas. This large expatriate community includes many South Asians (Indians, Pakistanis, Bangladeshis) as well as Filipinos, other Asians, Europeans, Americans and Arabs from other countries. For example, one data source (2010) lists Bahraini nationals around 46% of the population, with Asians at 45.5% (More recent data suggest a similar split: roughly half Bahraini vs. half non-Bahraini). Most foreign residents are there for jobs in construction, services, finance, domestic work, or the oil sector.
Ethnicity and language: Native Bahrainis are predominantly Arab. Among Bahraini citizens, the majority are Shia Muslim Arabs (often called the Baharna for those regarded as indigenous farming populations, and Ajam for Shia of Persian heritage), while a significant Sunni Arab minority (including the ruling Al Khalifa) has historically held power. Non-Arab minority groups include Afro-Arabs and Indians who have been in the islands for generations. Among expatriates, South Asians are the largest group. The official language is Arabic (a Gulf Arabic dialect), spoken by almost everyone. English is widely used in business, education, and government, and serves as a lingua franca among different communities Many residents speak other languages at home as well: Hindi, Urdu, and Malayalam are common among South Asians, and Farsi is spoken by some Baharna (Shia) Bahrainis and Iranian expatriates.
Religion: Islam is the state religion, and the vast majority of citizens are Muslim Islam in Bahrain has both Sunni and Shia branches. Most Bahraini citizens are Shia (various Twelver Shia communities), making Bahrain the only Gulf Arab monarchy with a Shia majority among its citizens. The Sunni minority (including the royal family) has traditionally dominated politics and the military. Beyond Islam, Bahrain is religiously pluralistic for the region due to the expatriates: about 70% of all residents are Muslim (mostly Sunni and Shia), roughly 15% are Christian (many from the West or India), about 10% Hindu, and a few percent Buddhist Small numbers of Sikhs, Baha’is, and other faiths are also present. Bahrainian law guarantees some religious freedom. The government funds Sunni and Shia mosques, and also temples and churches for other faiths. For example, public holidays include not only Eid al-Fitr and Eid al-Adha (Islamic holidays), but also Ashura commemorations (Shia holiday) and symbols of tolerance like Christmas celebrations.
Society: Bahraini society reflects a blend of Bedouin Arab traditions and modern influences. Extended families and tribal affiliations are socially important. Many Bahrainis live in coastal cities and work in professional, government, or service jobs. Education and literacy rates are generally high; the government has national health care and invests in education. Tourism and hospitality have also influenced society, especially in Manama and resort areas. On weekends and holidays, Bahrainis frequently intermingle with visitors and neighbors from other Gulf states; for instance, many people come by road from Saudi Arabia to visit markets, malls, and restaurants in Bahrain. The population is young overall: about 78% are between ages 15–64 and only about 4% are over 65 Life expectancy is in the mid-70s for both men and women, and infant mortality is low. Bahrain’s human-development indicators (health, education, standard of living) rank high among Arab states due to oil wealth and investment.
Economy
Bahrain has a high-income economy by global standards. Its per capita GDP is among the highest in Asia (around $29,000 USD in recent years) Unlike its much larger neighbors, Bahrain diversified away from oil relatively early. While it was in one of the world’s major oil-producing regions, Bahrain’s own oil reserves have always been limited. The first oil well (1932) transformed life, but by the late 20th century oil production was declining. Bahrain’s economy therefore long focused on refining and processing oil (including crude from nearby Saudi Arabia) rather than drilling. It also developed a significant role in finance and services. Today, Bahrain is often described as the most financially diversified of the Gulf states.
Major sectors of Bahrain’s economy include:
- Petroleum and Petrochemicals: The country’s birth as a modern state was due to oil. Petroleum still accounts for a large share of government revenue and export earnings. Bahrain’s two large oil refineries and a petrochemical complex manage both local crude and imported crude from Saudi Arabia through the Abu Safah field. However, output is small compared to Saudi Arabia or the UAE. Fluctuations in global oil prices have an impact on Bahrain’s budget and growth, but oil’s share of GDP has shrunk over time.
- Financial Services: Bahrain was an early regional banking center. It has a well-developed banking sector, with many regional and international banks licensed there. The corporate tax rate was long zero, making Bahrain attractive for financial companies. The stock exchange (Bahrain Bourse) is one of the Gulf’s first, and the country hosts influential Islamic finance institutions and regulatory bodies (e.g. the Accounting and Auditing Organization for Islamic Financial Institutions). In recent years the government has spotlighted Bahrain as a “FinTech” and insurance hub.
- Tourism and Hospitality: Bahrain promotes itself as a tourist destination for the region. Visitors come for business tourism (conferences, events) and increasingly for leisure – attractions include luxury hotels, beaches, the Bahrain International Circuit (hosting a Formula One race since 2004), cultural festivals, modern shopping malls, and restored historic sites (like the ancient Qal’at al-Bahrain fort and old souqs). Tourism earnings (mostly from visitors within the GCC) have grown under economic diversification plans.
- Manufacturing and Industry: Bahrain has some light industry and manufacturing. Besides refining, it has fertilizer plants and an aluminum smelter (owned by the state). The country also produces dairy and beverages (e.g. the regional soda brand “Bahrain”) and leather goods, though these are modest in scale. The industrial sector is supported by free-trade zones and incentives.
- Technology and Services: The government has encouraged telecommunications, IT, and medical services. Bahrain serves as a regional call-center hub and has invested in data centers.
- Real Estate and Construction: Urban development and construction continue to be active, especially with government-led projects (housing, reclamation). The public sector is a major employer and investor in infrastructure.
Recent data show Bahrain’s economy growing more strongly in its non-oil sectors. For example, in 2023 non-oil GDP grew by about 3.4% while the oil sector contracted by 2.4% Overall real GDP rose roughly 2.4% that year. Growth drivers included hospitality (hotels, restaurants – boosted by tourism) as well as finance, government services, transportation and communications Forecasts expect moderate growth (~2–3% annually) in the coming years, assuming modest oil prices and continued diversification.
Trade and budgets: Bahrain imports most of its food and consumer goods, as it lacks arable land (about 97% of food is imported) Its top exports are petroleum products, aluminum, and petrochemicals; imports include machinery, food, chemicals and boats. The Bahraini dinar (BHD) is the currency, one of the world’s strongest (pegged to the US dollar). Public finances have been challenged by debt. Bahrain’s sovereign debt-to-GDP ratio is among the highest in the Gulf (above 100%), partly due to fixed low oil production and generous subsidies. The government received financial support from Saudi Arabia and others to cover deficits in the 2010s. In response, Bahrain introduced value-added tax (VAT) in 2019 and cut some subsidies as part of fiscal reforms.
Overall, Bahrain is relatively diversified by Gulf standards: an Oxford Business Group report notes it has “strong financial services, tourism, and manufacturing sectors complementing its oil industry” The country positions itself as a regional business and transport hub (benefiting from its central location and trade links). Its economy remains linked to its larger neighbors through GCC mechanisms and shared infrastructure (notably the causeway to Saudi Arabia).
Governance
Bahrain is a constitutional monarchy with a bicameral parliament. The head of state is King Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa (since 1999 as Emir, King since 2002). The ruling Al Khalifa family has held power since 1783. The King appoints the government’s chief executives. The Prime Minister is chosen by the King (historically a senior Al Khalifa; previously Sheikh Khalifa bin Salman Al Khalifa held the post from 1971 until his death in 2020; he was succeeded by King Hamad’s son, Crown Prince Salman). The cabinet (Council of Ministers) is also appointed by the King and includes ministers overseeing various portfolios (finance, education, foreign affairs, etc.).
Bahrain’s legislative branch is the National Assembly, established under the 2002 constitution. It has two chambers of 40 members each. The lower house (Council of Representatives) is elected by universal (adult) suffrage to four-year terms. Elections for these seats are competitive (multiple candidates run in each district), and women and minorities can and have participated. The upper house (Shura Council)’s 40 members are appointed by the King and serve five-year terms. The Shura Council plays a legislative and advisory role. Together, the two chambers debate and approve legislation (a bill must pass both to become law). The King has a veto but there are procedures for overriding it. In practice, the appointed Shura Council often holds positions reflecting the royal family’s policies, while the elected chamber includes a range of groups. Shia and Sunni political societies (unofficial political blocs, since parties per se are not allowed) compete in elections. Some Shia-led blocs (e.g. Al Wefaq) won majorities of elected seats in past elections, though political tensions have led to boycotts or bans for some factions.
The judiciary is formally independent but Bahrain follows a civil law system influenced by Islamic law. There are ordinary courts (civil and criminal) and family (personal status) courts. The King appoints judges, who are often foreign-trained. Bahrain adheres to Sharia (Islamic law) in matters of inheritance, marriage and divorce, in line with its constitution.
Administratively, Bahrain is a unitary state divided into four governorates: Capital (Al ‘Asimah, including Manama), Muharraq, Northern and Southern Governorates. Each governorate has a governor appointed by the King. Local municipalities handle some municipal services, but real power is centralized.
In foreign relations, Bahrain is a member of the Gulf Cooperation Council, the United Nations, the Arab League, the World Trade Organization and other international bodies. It hosts a major US naval base (home to the U.S. Navy Fifth Fleet). Bahrain generally aligns closely with Saudi Arabia and other GCC states on regional issues. In recent years Bahrain has normalized relations with Israel (joining the 2020 Gulf-Israel accords) and built economic ties with emerging markets. It maintains open trade and investment ties globally. Bahrain’s foreign policy balances relations with its powerful neighbors (especially Saudi Arabia and the UAE), which have provided financial aid at times, with engagement in international forums.
Culture and Society
Bahraini culture is rooted in its Arab-Islamic heritage but is also cosmopolitan. The official religion is Islam, practiced by the majority of citizens. Islamic traditions and festivals (such as Ramadan, the annual charity Ramadan “Iftar” dinners, the two Eids, and the Shia commemoration of Ashura) play central roles in public life. Bahrain is one of the few Gulf states that publicly observes Ashura (marking the martyrdom of Imam Hussein), reflecting its Shia cultural influence. Many Bahrainis also celebrate ancient local traditions, such as the story of the Queen of Sheba (a legendary figure connected to a nearby archaeological site at Qal’at al-Bahrain), and the country’s Dilmun heritage.
The arts and literature are thriving. Bahrainis enjoy music, poetry and dance. A traditional musical form called Fijiri – a sea chantey sung by pearl divers – is known nationally, and Bahrainis celebrate their pearling heritage (the old pearling masters’ quarters in Muharraq are now a UNESCO World Heritage site Nowadays, pop and modern styles coexist: Bahraini musicians perform in Arabic pop and classical genres, and global music is common in retail and media. Film and television culture is popular, and Bahraini filmmakers have produced award-winning short films. Bahrain’s media is relatively open for the region; it has several local newspapers (in Arabic and English), television stations, and numerous websites.
Arabic is the official language, and most Bahrainis speak the Gulf Arabic dialect. English is widely understood, especially in business, education, and among younger Bahrainis. French and Urdu are also used by some expatriate communities. The literacy rate is high, and Bahrain has a well-educated workforce (there are multiple universities and technical institutes in Manama and elsewhere).
Cuisine reflects both Arab and Persian Gulf flavors. Common dishes include machboos (spiced rice with lamb, chicken or fish), grilled meats and seafood, and rich sweets like halwa. Dates and fresh fish are staples, echoing the island’s heritage. Sheikh Salman’s faded tracks (the practice of afternoon coffee with cardamom) are part of social etiquette. Coffee (Gahwa) served in small cups is a symbol of hospitality. Cafés and restaurants in cities serve both Middle Eastern and international dishes.
Bahrain is known for hosting major cultural and sporting events. Every year it stages an international Grand Prix Formula One race at the Sakhir Circuit, one of the first F1 races in the Middle East. There are also camel and horse racing traditions, and a popular off-road rally. Football (soccer) is the most popular team sport, with Bahrain’s national team competing in Asian tournaments. The government invests in sports facilities; traditional ship-building (for dhows) and falconry also continue as heritage pastimes.
Urban culture blends modern and traditional architecture. Manama’s skyline features glass-and-steel towers (like the Bahrain World Trade Center with its sail-shaped buildings) as well as old coral-stone houses. The Bahrain National Museum (Manama) and the Muharraq Museum showcase archaeology and Pearling Heritage. There are also cultural festivals year-round, such as a food festival, a film festival, and religious arts bazaars. Bahrain’s society is relatively liberal: women often work and study alongside men (women have served in parliament and the judiciary), and nightlife (restaurants, cafes) is vibrant compared to some neighbors. However, respect for Islamic values remains a cornerstone. The constitution itself affirms that “the family is the cornerstone of society, the strength of which lies in religion, ethics, and patriotism”
Environment and Natural Resources
Bahrain’s environment is shaped by its desert island setting. Natural vegetation is sparse due to aridity. Date palms and drought-resistant shrubs grow in oases and some farms. Outside cities, one can find salt marshes, sabkha flats, and scattered mangroves in sheltered coastal inlets. Wildlife on land is limited but includes small mammals (rodents, foxes) and reptiles. Modern Bahrain has few large wild animals; gazelles and desert foxes survive in protected reserves and on undeveloped islands.
Bahrain lies on the edge of the migratory bird route between Asia and Africa, so seasonal flocks of waterfowl and shorebirds (including flamingos, spoonbills, and gulls) visit its wetlands. The government has established nature reserves and protected areas to conserve biodiversity. For example, the Hawar Islands (a group of small islands south of Bahrain Island) form a protected wildlife sanctuary famous for migrating seabirds and coral reefs (Hawar was declared a UNESCO Tentative List site for its natural heritage.) Another key reserve is Jubail Bay on southern Bahrain (about 13.5 km²), a tidal wetland important for shorebirds and native plants Bahrain’s environmental agencies monitor and manage these sites, and the country is party to international agreements on wetlands, biodiversity, and endangered species.
The Gulf waters around Bahrain are rich in marine life – coral reefs, seagrass beds, and fish populations. However, these ecosystems face pressures. Coastal development, oil spills, and dredging have degraded some reefs. Bahrain’s ports, refineries and tankers pose pollution risks. Many reefs have suffered bleaching due to warming sea temperatures (a symptom of climate change). Overfishing, especially of lobster and local fish, has prompted regulations and artificial reef programs. Bahrain cooperates with neighboring Gulf countries on ocean conservation and regional environmental initiatives.
Water is Bahrain’s most critical natural resource issue. The islands have no rivers or lakes; groundwater aquifers are shallow and limited Overpumping in the 20th century heavily depleted the aquifers (the main one, Damman aquifer, extends from Saudi Arabia under Bahrain). Rainfall is so low that virtually no water is recharged naturally. As a result, Bahrain faces chronic water scarcity. To meet its needs, Bahrain depends almost entirely on desalination and wastewater reuse Roughly 36% of processed water comes from seawater desalination plants, about 10% from treated wastewater, and the rest from brackish groundwater The country’s water infrastructure is highly advanced but energy-intensive. Conservation measures (water recycling, efficient irrigation) are government priorities.
Climatic challenges are significant. Bahrain has one of the world’s most water-deficit climates: average evaporation exceeds precipitation many times over Sea-level rise due to climate change threatens Bahrain’s low-lying coasts (Manama and other cities barely rise above sea level). A recent review notes that Bahrain confronts “extreme heat, drought, and dust storms” which are intensifying as the climate warms A severe rainstorm in 2024 caused historic flooding in Bahrain as well as nearby UAE and Oman, an event linked to changing weather patterns. In sum, higher temperatures, stronger coastal storms, and saltwater intrusion into aquifers pose growing risks to Bahrain’s urban and agricultural zones. The government has developed a National Climate Plan focusing on water security, renewable energy (e.g. solar projects), and disaster preparedness to address these threats.
Air quality in cities can be poor at times due to dust and vehicle emissions, though it is better than in some larger Gulf cities. The arid deserts and shallows also suffer from desertification – overgrazing and soil erosion have degraded some lands. The Ministry of Environment and international partners plant mangroves and date palms to stabilize soils. Bahrain has also invested in coastal protections (sea walls, reef restoration) and continues to monitor coral health. Participation in international environmental agreements (on biodiversity, climate change, and desertification) reflects Bahrain’s recognition that its environment is fragile.
Economically, Bahrain produces little in the way of minerals beyond oil, natural gas, and fish. It does have some fish farming and shrimp culture. Salt is harvested from natural flats. Historically Bahrain was famed for natural pearls; although the gem industry collapsed in the 1930s, oysters remain part of the marine heritage. The sea and beaches are important for recreation and tourism, so Bahrain aims to balance development with preserving its scenic and ecological character as much as possible.
Conclusion
Today Bahrain is a modern, high-income state that combines deep-rooted tradition with global engagement. Its geography—a dense archipelago with limited natural resources—has shaped a society that relies heavily on trade, finance, and external labor, while tightly managing its delicate environment. Bahraini culture celebrates its Islamic and Bedouin heritage (from Dilmun to the present) even as it looks outward to the world of business, technology, and tourism. The country’s governance under the Al Khalifa monarchy has introduced some democratic institutions, but political power remains centered on the royal family and the state. Economically, Bahrain has moved beyond being purely an oil economy to become a regional banking and services hub. These facets make Bahrain an influential “bridge” between Arab tradition and contemporary global trends in the Persian Gulf.
Further Reading: Authoritative overviews of Bahrain can be found in encyclopedias and international reports. See, for example, the Britannica entry “Bahrain,” the CIA World Factbook on Bahrain, and current analyses such as the FocusEconomics report “Bahrain Economic Outlook” and the Middle East Briefing “Non-Oil Sector Driving Bahrain’s GDP Growth.” Historical and cultural context can be explored in works on Gulf history (e.g. I. al-Hasani, Bahrain: Political History). For environmental and geographic details, sources include environmental NGO reports and the Bahrain Food Monitor study “Building a More Resilient Bahrain.” (External links have been omitted here; see cited sources in academic or government publications for more.)