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Darmstadtium

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Darmstadtium
Atomic number 110
Symbol Ds
Group 10 (nickel group)
Electron configuration [Rn] 5f14 6d8 7s2
Period 7
Main isotopes 281Ds, 269Ds, 271Ds
Discovery 1994 (GSI, Darmstadt)
Block d
Oxidation states +2, +4, +6
Wikidata Q1266

Darmstadtium is a superheavy, synthetic chemical element with symbol Ds and atomic number 110. It belongs to group 10 of the periodic table, the chemical family that includes nickel, palladium, and platinum. Like its lighter congeners (nickel, palladium, platinum), it is predicted to be a dense, silvery-white transition metal, but it has only been produced atom‐by‐atom in laboratories. All its isotopes are radioactive with ultrashort half-lives (the longest-lived known isotope lives only on the order of seconds). Darmstadtium was first synthesized in 1994 at the GSI Helmholtz Centre for Heavy Ion Research in Darmstadt, Germany, and it was named in honor of the city and research center. In practice it has no applications outside basic research – it exists only briefly in particle accelerators and decays away without forming any stable compounds.

Overview and Key Facts

  • Symbol: Ds
  • Atomic number (Z): 110
  • Group/Period/Block: 10 / 7 / d-block (transition metal)
  • Category: Synthetic, transactinide metal (heavy, beyond the actinides)
  • Appearance: (Predicted) silvery-gray metal, although only a few atoms have ever been made.
  • Phase at STP: Predicted solid metal (by analogy with platinum group)
  • Electron configuration: [Rn] 5f^14 6d^8 7s^2 (predicted) – the closed-shell noble-gas core (radon) plus 24 valence electrons in the 5f, 6d, and 7s orbitals.
  • Common oxidation states: Predicted by theory to be +2, +4, and possibly +6, by analogy with platinum and palladium. (The neutral state Ds^0 is expected to be the stable form in aqueous solution.)
  • Oxidation-state details: Nickel-group metals often show +2 and +4; palladium and platinum occasionally reach +6 in compounds (e.g. PdF6 or PtF6). Darmstadtium’s highest predicted state is +6 (in e.g. DsF6), though no such compound has been made.
  • Most stable isotope: ^281Ds (atomic mass ≈281 u) – half-life ≈10–12 seconds, the longest of any known darmstadtium isotope. A reported metastable state of ^281Ds (^281mDs) may live for minutes, but this is not confirmed.
  • Other isotopes: At least eight others (mass numbers 269, 270, 271, 273, 275, 276, 277, 279), all highly radioactive and short-lived (from microseconds to fractions of a second). No stable or naturally occurring isotopes exist.
  • Atomic mass: No standard atomic weight (unstable element); often quoted mass number of longest-lived isotope, [281].
  • Density: Not measured; theoretically very high (estimates ~30–35 g/cm^3, compared to ~21.5 g/cm^3 for platinum), because of large atomic mass and compact atomic radius.
  • Melting/Boiling points: Unknown (predicted to be very high, likely above 2000 °C, similar to or greater than platinum’s 1768 °C); it would be a refractory metal if it could be obtained in quantity.
  • Crystal structure: Presumed face-centered cubic (fcc) as in other group-10 metals (Ni/Pd/Pt); lattice constants unknown.
  • Density and hardness: Calculations suggest a very dense, heavy metal, perhaps rivaling osmium or iridium in density. Mechanical properties are unknown.
  • Radioactivity: All isotopes alpha-decay or fission. No practical amount exists at any time (typically only a few atoms are present) – once produced, darmstadtium decays into lighter elements (like hassium, meitnerium).
  • Discovery: First synthesized in 1994 (Armbruster and Münzenberg, GSI Darmstadt) by bombarding lead-208 targets with high-energy nickel ions. Name “darmstadtium” (symbol Ds) given in 2003 by IUPAC, after Darmstadt.
  • Fuel cycle & availability: Not found in nature; only made in laboratories by nuclear fusion of heavy ions (e.g. ^208Pb + ^62Ni → ^269Ds) or by decay of heavier nuclei. Several research facilities have produced it (Germany’s GSI, Russia’s JINR, etc.), usually one atom at a time.

Atomic Structure and Electron Configuration

Darmstadtium (Z=110) lies in the 7th period (row) of the periodic table, just under platinum. Its electrons fill orbitals up to the 7th shell. The predicted ground-state configuration is [Rn] 5f^14 6d^8 7s^2. This means it has the same noble-gas core as radon (Rn, Z=86), plus fourteen electrons in the 5f subshell and ten valence electrons distributed as eight in the 6d subshell and two in the 7s subshell. (Some older sources list [Rn] 5f^14 6d^9 7s^1, but relativistic quantum calculations – which include special relativity effects important for heavy elements – favor the 6d^8 7s^2 assignment. In other words, the 7s orbital is stabilized by relativity, keeping two electrons there.) Having ten valence electrons is analogous to palladium (Pd, Z=46) and platinum (Pt, Z=78), in group 10, which both have full d^10 or nearly d^10 shells in their neutral atoms.

Because darmstadtium-like atoms are so heavy, their inner electrons move very fast (a significant fraction of the speed of light). This causes large relativistic effects that alter orbital energies: the s orbitals contract and stabilize, while the d and f orbitals expand slightly. As a result, darmstadtium’s 7s electrons are unusually tightly bound (similar to gold’s behavior with its 6s electrons). These effects influence its chemistry and bonding, making it behave somewhat differently than a simple extrapolation from lighter elements would predict.

Periodic trends: As a group-10 metal, darmstadtium is predicted to continue the trends from nickel, palladium, and platinum. The atomic radius of Ds has not been measured, but theoretical estimates give a covalent radius of about 128 picometers (pm), similar to or slightly larger than Pt’s covalent radius (∼139 pm). However, the relativistic contraction tends to make the radius smaller than a naive extrapolation would suggest. By comparison, Ni (Z=28) has radius ~124 pm, Pd (Z=46) ~137 pm, and Pt ~139 pm (covalent radii). Because Ds is much heavier, its radius may be comparable to or slightly above Pt. In any case darmstadtium is extremely small for its atomic mass, which contributes to its very high predicted density.

Ionization energy and electronegativity: The first ionization energy of Ds (the energy to remove one electron from the neutral atom) has not been measured. Based on periodic trends (Ni ~737 kJ/mol, Pd ~804 kJ/mol, Pt ~870 kJ/mol), one expects Ds’s ionization energy to be on the order of 900 kJ/mol (about 9 eV). Strong relativistic stabilization of the 7s electrons suggests it will be slightly higher than platinum’s. Electronegativities are also not known experimentally, but Ds is expected to be comparable to platinum (Pt is 2.28 on the Pauling scale). In general, group-10 metals are fairly electronegative for transition metals because of their filled d-shell nature. Darmstadtium likely has a Pauling electronegativity around 2.2 or so, but heavy-metal scales are uncertain.

In summary, darmstadtium’s electronic structure is that of a high-Z platinum-group metal: filled noble-gas core, filled 5f subshell, and a nearly filled 6d shell with two 7s electrons. Relativistic effects play a key role in stabilizing its electron configuration.

Isotopes and Nuclear Properties

Darmstadtium has no stable isotopes. All of its known isotopes are radioactive and have very short half-lives. As of now, at least nine isotopes of Ds have been identified (mass numbers A = 269, 270, 271, 273, 275, 276, 277, 279, 281). Some early claimed isotopes (like ^267Ds) were not confirmed. In practice, heavier isotopes have been synthesized in various nuclear fusion experiments. For example, ^269Ds and ^271Ds were first seen at GSI in 1994, and later experiments have produced heavier ones (e.g. ^281Ds at Darmstadt and RIKEN in 2004, and ^275Ds, ^276Ds recently at Dubna in 2022–2023).

The half-lives of these isotopes are extremely short: the longest-lived known isotope is ^281Ds, with a half-life on the order of 10–12 seconds. (A reported metastable state ^281mDs might live ~3–4 minutes, but this is under debate.) Other isotopes are much shorter-lived. For example, ^279Ds has a half-life around 0.18 seconds. ^277Ds lives about 5.7 milliseconds, and ^275Ds about 62 microseconds (as recently measured). The remaining isotopes and any excited states typically decay in milliseconds, microseconds, or even nanoseconds. Because of these extremely short lifetimes, even when a few atoms are produced, they vanish almost immediately, emitting radiation as they decay into lighter elements (usually by alpha decay or spontaneous fission).

Decay modes: The primary decay mode for darmstadtium isotopes is alpha decay (emitting a helium-4 nucleus), which lowers the proton and neutron counts by 2 each. For example, ^281Ds (110 protons, 171 neutrons) alpha-decays to ^277Hs (hassium, Z=108). Some isotopes (especially the lighter ones) may also undergo spontaneous fission (splitting into two roughly equal fragments), but alpha emission dominates. Beta decay (a neutron converting to a proton or vice versa) has never been observed in Ds, as the nuclei typically fission or alpha-decay before beta processes can occur.

Nuclear spins: Detailed nuclear spin and parity values of darmstadtium isotopes are mostly unknown or unpublished, given the difficulty of measurement. They are not needed for general description but would be of interest for nuclear physics.

Uses of isotopes: None outside research. The isotopes exist only in specialized labs, and their extremely short half-lives make them unsuitable for any practical application like medicine or dating. They are mainly of scientific interest for studying the limits of nuclear stability and exploring the “island of stability” in superheavy elements.

Radiations and safety: All Ds isotopes are highly radioactive. They decay by alpha emission (one of the more hazardous radiation types if ingested), but in reality the tiny quantity of atoms (often just one at a time) means no real radiological risk outside the experiment. In practice, researchers handle darmstadtium in dedicated facilities with shielding and remote systems, just as for any other superheavy element experiment.

Allotropes and Typical Compounds

No distinct allotropes of darmstadtium are known, nor even observed, because it has only been made in such minute amounts. If produced in macroscopic quantity, Ds would be a metal, and by analogy with platinum group metals it would form a metallic crystalline solid (likely face-centered cubic). Alloys or alternate allotropes (as seen in carbon, sulfur, etc.) have no relevance here.

Because darmstadtium’s chemistry has never been studied directly, its compounds are known only by theoretical prediction. As a group-10 element, Ds should mimic platinum (Pt) and palladium (Pd). Both Pt and Pd form stable +2 and +4 compounds (e.g. PtCl2, PtCl4) and inert metal-zero complexes. Platinum also forms a strong +6 compound (PtF6, platinum hexafluoride), which famously oxidizes xenon in XePtF6. Palladium does not reach +6, but PdF6 can be made under extreme conditions. Darmstadtium is predicted to be able to reach oxidation +6 (like Pt) because of its heavy nucleus. For example, DsF6 (darmstadtium hexafluoride) is predicted to be analogous to PtF6 and to have an octahedral geometry. Theory suggests DsF6 would be highly oxidizing and colorless, and would stabilize the +6 state for Ds. Similarly, a hypothetical DsCl4 (like PtCl4) or DsO2 (like PtO2) could exist. Darmstadtium carbide (DsC) and DsCl4 have been predicted theoretically, behaving like platinum(II) carbide and tetrachloride. However, none of these compounds has ever been observed, and they exist only as chemical models in computation.

Likely chemical behavior: In solution or on surfaces, darmstadtium atoms would tend to stay in low oxidation states (0 or +2) unless very strongly oxidized. In neutral form, a Ds atom would have 10 valence electrons and act as a “noble metal” with little tendency to gain or lose electrons. By analogy with platinum, one might expect Ds^0 to be slightly reductive (willing to donate electrons) but not easily oxidized by weak acids or oxygen. It is predicted to resist corrosion and oxidation, forming surface oxides only with very strong oxidizers.

Bonding: As a metal, solid darmstadtium would have metallic bonding (a “sea of electrons”). In compounds like predicted DsF6, bonding would be covalent/ionic similar to PtF6. Relativistic effects imply that any Ds–ligand bonds may have unusual strength: the contracted 7s electrons could lead to stronger bonding in some molecules. For instance, the 7s orbital may lie lower in energy, affecting bond lengths and strengths in predicted Ds complexes. In general, however, expected bond lengths would be close to those of platinum analogues (for example, Ds–Cl bonds in DsCl4 would be similar to Pt–Cl bonds, around 210 pm if it were made).

Typical oxidation states: The most likely stable oxidation states for Ds in compounds are +2 and +4, as with platinum. +2 compounds would correspond to a Ds^2+ ion (like Pt(II)), and +4 to Ds^4+ (like Pt(IV)). The +6 state is conceivable with strong fluorinating agents (analogous to PtF6), and +1 or -1 states are theoretically possible in exotic ligands but not expected in practice. A neutral complex, Ds(0), similar to Pt in carbonyls or organics, might be predicted but unproven.

Hydrides, oxides, halides: Platinum group forms e.g. PtO, PtO2, PtCl2, PtCl4, PtF6, as mentioned. By extrapolation, one might imagine DsO2 (white or yellow solid) or DsCl2 as dark solids, and DsF6 as a yellow liquid or solid (PtF6 is yellow). Nickel and palladium rarely form stable binary hydrides or hydride complexes, so Darmstadtium hydrides are unlikely except perhaps as fleeting gas-phase species (like PtH4 which is unstable). No alkali or alkali-earth compounds containing Ds are expected, as it is quite distinct from those families.

In summary, darmstadtium’s chemistry would be “platinum-like”: forming coordination complexes, halides, oxides in similarities to Pt, but with all of this remaining theoretical. The very short existence of Ds atoms prevents real compound formation or isolation.

Physical Properties

Because only tiny, transient amounts of darmstadtium have ever been made, its physical properties are mostly unknown and must be inferred from theory or from trends. It is predicted to be an extremely dense, high-melting metal. For reference, platinum (Pt) has density 21.45 g/cm³, atomic radius ~139 pm, and melting point 1768 °C. Darmstadtium, with its heavier nucleus (Z=110) and similarly compact radius (theoretical covalent radius ~128–140 pm), should be even heavier per volume. Some calculations put its solid density at ~30–35 g/cm³ (i.e. 30,000–35,000 kg/m³), making it possibly denser than osmium (22.6 g/cm³) and comparable to the heaviest predicted densities among elements. This very rough estimate comes from assuming a 4-atom unit cell in a face-centered cubic lattice with appropriate lattice spacing (around 380–390 pm).

Crystal structure: All group-10 metals (Ni, Pd, Pt) crystallize in face-centered cubic (fcc) structures. By periodic analogy and energy calculations, darmstadtium is also expected to favor an fcc lattice as its lowest-energy form. No alternate allotropes (like hcp or bcc structures) are predicted to compete strongly at ambient pressure, although pressure or temperature might hypothetically induce a phase change in theory.

Melting/boiling points: These are not measured, but likely extremely high. Platinum melts at 2041 K; darmstadtium, being heavier and with very strong metallic bonding (10 valence electrons per atom!), would be expected to melt above that. Estimates might place it well above 2500 K, though we have no precise prediction. Its boiling point, similarly, would be far above 5000 K. Regardless, at standard conditions (20 °C, 1 atm), Ds would be a solid, likely with a silvery metal sheen.

Electrical and thermal conductivity: As a metal, Ds should conduct electricity and heat well, like Pt. Platinum is a good electrical conductor with resistivity ~10.6 nΩ·m at 20 °C. Darmstadtium’s resistivity would likely be of the same order (a fraction of platinum’s, given more electrons), making it a good conductor of electricity. Thermal conductivity is also expected to be high, as the heavy nuclei give strong phonon contributions; but specific values are not available.

Magnetism: Nickel is ferromagnetic, palladium is nearly ferromagnetic, and platinum is paramagnetic (weak). For darmstadtium, with a filled d-shell (d^8) and complete f-shell, it is expected to be not ferromagnetic. It would likely be paramagnetic or even diamagnetic (no permanent magnetic moment) in its bulk form.

Spectroscopy: No atomic or molecular spectra have been measured. If one atom could be excited, its electronic transitions would lie mostly in the extreme ultraviolet and x-ray regions, similar to other heavy elements. Similarly, no nuclear spectroscopy exists. Researchers can, however, infer some properties by looking at the alpha-decay energies (they suggest nuclear shell effects, for instance).

In short, darmstadtium would behave like a typical noble metal in bulk: a dense, heavy, metallic solid with high melting point, good conductivity, and no unusual magnetic or optical features apart from its radioactivity (the metal would glow no special color, likely a lustrous gray).

Based on periodic trends, darmstadtium is expected to be a very unreactive (noble) metal. Nickel is somewhat reactive (it rusts slowly), palladium is quite inert, and platinum is famously inert (unaffected by oxygen and water, dissolves only in “aqua regia” or hot concentrated acids plus nitrohydrochloric acid). Darmstadtium, below platinum, would likely be even more reluctant to participate in chemical reactions. In air or water at room temperature it would remain passivated (if one could ever collect atoms on a surface, they would oxidize only under extreme conditions).

  • Oxidation-reduction: There is no data on Ds redox chemistry, but by analogy, Ds^0 (the neutral metal) would be a mild reducing agent at best (like Pt^0) but generally inert. It would not oxidize easily in air; strong oxidizers might convert a small fraction to DsOx or Ds^n+ ions, but this has not been tested. The predicted +2 and +4 states would only form with powerful chemical oxidants. For example, treating Ds with concentrated chlorine or fluorine might form DsCl4 or DsF6. Aquo complexes (Ds in water or acid) would likely stay as a neutral metal or as Ds^2+ at most, unless very strong acids were used. In any case, any Ds ions produced would quickly revert or precipitate because of spontaneous reduction by adventitious reductants in solution.
  • Acid-base behavior: Being a metal, darmstadtium has no “acid-base” chemistry in the usual sense (that concept applies to molecules in water). It would be chemically inert to bases and acids, except that strong acids could dissolve Pt group metals. Platinum dissolves in hot HCl/HNO3 mixtures, forming PtCl4 or PtCl6^2–; perhaps Ds could form analogous chloroionic complexes under such extreme conditions. But again, no experiments confirm this.
  • Complex formation: Platinum and palladium each form many coordination complexes (e.g., [PtCl4]^2–, [Pt(NH3)4]^2+, Pd analogs, carbonyls like Ni(CO)4). If darmstadtium behaved like Pt, one could imagine complexes [DsCl6]^2–, [Ds(CN)4]^2–, or organometallic compounds like Ds(CO)2Cl2. These are speculative; no stable ligand environments for Ds have been created, and any such complexes would exist only fleetingly if at all. In theory, Ds might form a stable octahedral 6-coordinate complex in +4 or +6 oxidation, similar to Pt^4+ in K2[PtCl6] or XePtF6.
  • Corrosion and passivation: Pure darmstadtium metal (if one could see it) would not corrode like iron does. It would likely form a very thin oxide layer or nothing in air, akin to platinum’s passivity. It would resist attack by water or oxygen. Corrosive agents like Cl2, F2, and concentrated acid mixtures might oxidize the surface slowly.
  • Catalysis: Platinum is widely used as a catalyst (automotive converters, hydrogenation, etc.). Nickel too is a catalyst (e.g., Raney Ni). Palladium is used in organic coupling reactions. Darmstadtium’s catalytic potential is purely hypothetical, since no bulk sample exists. If a surface of Ds atoms could be presented to reactants, one would expect similar chemistry to Pt: activation of hydrogen, oxygen, or hydrocarbons. However, heavy-atom relativistic effects could make subtle differences. In short, Ds would sit at the extreme low-reactivity end of the metallic reactivity series (essentially as inert as platinum or more so).
  • Relationships: In group 10 order of reactivity (most to least) is roughly Ni > Pd > Pt > Ds (unmeasurably inert). It does not fit into classic metal displacement series because it does not exist in bulk. Chemically it would lie “below platinum,” i.e. less reactive; one might say it is the “least reactive” element in its group (until you consider even heavier ones like roentgenium, but those have insufficient data).

In conclusion, darmstadtium’s chemistry is predicted to be that of a heavy noble metal: metallic bonding, mostly zero-valent, and resistant to oxidation. Its few predicted compounds (fluorides, chlorides, etc.) would only form under specialized conditions. Because it decays so quickly, all these chemical properties remain theoretical.

Occurrence and Production

Occurrence: Darmstadtium does not occur naturally on Earth or in observable quantities anywhere. Any darmstadtium that might be produced in supernovae would decay back to lighter nuclei in seconds or less. Thus its cosmic or geological abundance is effectively zero. The element exists only in laboratories, where heavy-ion accelerators create it momentarily.

Laboratory production: All production of darmstadtium involves nuclear fusion reactions of heavy ions. The most common method is to accelerate beams of a light element into a target containing a heavy element. For example, the discovery reaction at GSI was:

^208Pb (lead) target + ^62Ni (nickel) beam → ^269Ds + 1 n

(Here one neutron is emitted.) This produced a few atoms of ^269Ds in November 1994. Using ^64Ni beams instead, they produced ^271Ds. These “cold fusion” methods (Pb + Ni or Bi + Zn at moderate energies) were standard for elements 110–112.

Other methods include “hot fusion” with ^48Ca beams: for instance, JINR Dubna (Russia) used ^48Ca + ^238U or ^232Th targets to produce new Ds isotopes (^275Ds, ^276Ds in 2022–2023) along with elements 114–118. Caltech’s Project 60, RIKEN (Japan), and Berkeley’s LBNL have also attempted Ds synthesis via various target-projectile combinations (Pu+S, Bi+Co, etc.), with varying success. In addition, some heavier element decay chains produce Ds isotopes (for example, a decay of element 111 (Rg) or 112 (Cn) can produce Ds as a daughter nucleus).

Yields: The cross-sections (probability) for producing Ds are vanishingly small. Experiments may run for weeks with particle accelerators hitting targets with trillions of ions per second, yet only a handful of Ds atoms are created. Typical yields are on the order of a few atoms per month or year of beam time. As of now, at most a few dozen atoms of darmstadtium have been synthesized and detected. Because of their short half-lives, these atoms are quickly lost, so they cannot be collected or stored.

Major producers: The lead laboratory for element 110 has been GSI in Germany (where it was discovered). Another key lab is JINR (Joint Institute for Nuclear Research) in Dubna, Russia (which discovered new Ds isotopes in the 2000s and 2020s). RIKEN in Japan has contributed by producing related isotopes, and Lawrence Berkeley National Lab (LBNL) in the US reported (but later retracted) early claims. Currently, frontier research in superheavy elements occurs at GSI/FAIR, JINR-SHE, and RIKEN. These facilities have particle accelerators and gas-jet transport systems to quickly separate and identify single atoms of new elements.

Extraction and refinement: There are no ores or minerals of darmstadtium (since it’s artificial), so there is no mining or refining in the usual sense. It is isolated from target materials and beam debris by fast “separator” devices (gas-jet or electromagnetic separators) that detect its decay signatures. Its small production amounts preclude any chemical extraction or purification procedures. In short, darmstadtium is made one atom at a time and identified by its radioactivity, never handled as a bulk material.

Applications and Technology

Darmstadtium has no practical applications outside fundamental research, due to its extreme scarcity and radioactivity. No devices, alloys, or processes use Ds. Its only “application” is scientific: it helps scientists test predictions of nuclear physics and chemistry at the limits of the periodic table.

  • Research tool: As a member of the superheavy elements, Ds and its isotopes provide data on nuclear shell effects, decay chains, and the theoretical “island of stability” (a region of predicted relatively longer-lived superheavy nuclei). Each new isotope discovered (like ^275Ds in 2023) refines models of nuclear structure.
  • Chemistry studies: Although no bulk chemistry can be done, researchers design experiments to glimpse how Ds might behave. One approach is thermochromatography: sending single atoms down a column coated with gold or quartz and seeing where they stick. This has been done for elements 106–112 to compare their volatilities and adsorption on gold surfaces. If such experiments could be done for darmstadtium, they would reveal how its chemistry compares to Pt or Hg. (To date, no definitive experiment with Ds on a surface has been reported, because the half-life is so short and yields so low.)
  • Technological roles: There are none. Ds is not used in catalysis, electronics, medicine, or any commercial application. Any catalytic properties it might share with Pt are moot because you cannot accumulate enough of the element to act as a catalyst.

In essence, darmstadtium’s role is purely to extend the periodic table. It belongs to research fields like nuclear physics, radio-chemistry, and high-energy physics. Its synthesis pushes accelerator technology and detection methods. Indirectly, work on Ds and other superheavy elements has driven development of faster detectors, more intense beams, and better automated chemistry setups (for instance, quick transport of atoms to detectors). But the element itself has no direct technological use.

Biology, Environment, and Safety

Darmstadtium has no biological role. It is not found in living organisms, nor could it be incorporated in biochemistry; in practice, no organism has ever encountered it. Its radiological and chemical properties would make it extremely harmful if one somehow ingested even a few atoms: the alpha radiation would damage cells. However, such exposure is purely hypothetical because Darmstadtium atoms decay so quickly and are made only in shielded labs.

Environmental fate: As an artificial product, Ds will not persist in the environment. Any atoms released would decay back to lighter elements in seconds. There is no environmental cycling or transportation of Ds. It does not bioaccumulate, as it never enters the biosphere.

Toxicity and safety: If we imagine a microgram of Ds (which is far beyond what’s possible), its radioactivity would be intense. But even one million times less than a microgram would produce huge alpha emission. In practice, laboratories treat any gold or lead foils where superheavy elements land as contaminated with short-lived isotopes, handling them with remote tools. There are exposure limits for radiations in general (e.g. 50 nCi for some radioisotopes in settings), but for Ds these are moot. Experimental setups assume that a Ds atom will travel millimeters and decay within microseconds, so special handling of the decay product (like hassium or seaborgium) is more relevant.

Chemically, darmstadtium behaves like platinum: it would not dissolve in most chemicals, so from a chemical exposure standpoint it is inert. The only hazard is radioactivity. Researchers wear gloves and use shields and fume hoods compatible with handling alpha emitters. In summary, the safety concerns of darmstadtium are essentially the same as for any alpha-emitting heavy nuclide: use remote handling, contain it, and wait for decay. But because only a handful of atoms exist at any moment, the overall risk is negligible in any normal sense.

History and Etymology

The quest for element 110 dates to the mid-20th century. Early efforts: In 1971, a team at Lawrence Berkeley Lab (USA) claimed to have made element 110 by bombarding bismuth with cobalt, but these results were later retracted. The name ununnium (Uun) (Latin for “one-one-zero”) was proposed as a placeholder by IUPAC in 1979. Meanwhile, researchers at Dubna (Russia) and Darmstadt (Germany) attempted various reactions in the 1980s and early 1990s.

The official discovery came in 1994 at GSI Darmstadt, Germany. Names often cited are Sigurd Hofmann (director at GSI), Peter Armbruster, and Gottfried Münzenberg, among others. On November 9, 1994, using a cyclotron, they bombarded a ^208Pb target with ^62Ni ions and detected the alpha decay of ^269Ds (one atom). The same year, by using ^64Ni, they made ^271Ds (nine atoms over two experiments). These results were more convincing than prior claims. The IUPAC/IUPAP Joint Working Party later credited GSI with the discovery and designated the name darmstadtium in 2003, honoring the city of Darmstadt and the GSI lab.

The suggested symbol Ds was also approved. The name follows the tradition of naming superheavy elements after places (e.g. huashunium, Copernicnium, darmstadtium, roentgenium, etc.). “Darmstadtium” replaced the systematic name ununnilium.

Meanwhile, Yuri Oganessian’s group at JINR Dubna also reported producing Ds isotopes (like ^273Ds in 1995 by bombarding plutonium with sulfur), but those are considered joint efforts of discovery (the name was not drawn from Dubna since Darmstadt’s claim came first). Over the next decades, other Ds isotopes were made: ^277Ds, ^281Ds, etc., at GSI, RIKEN, and Dubna. Each new isotope was often found as a decay product of a newer element or by continuing fusion experiments. For example, RIKEN in Japan discovered ^281Ds in 2004 by a ^208Pb + ^70Zn reaction. Very recently, in 2022–23, the Dubna Superheavy Element Factory used ^48Ca on ^232Th to find ^276Ds and ^275Ds.

The half-life of ^281Ds (around 11 seconds) is roughly five orders of magnitude longer than that of ^277Ds (milliseconds), illustrating the progression toward more stable heavy nuclei. Researchers have noted this in the context of the “island of stability” hypothesis.

Today, darmstadtium stands as the first element definitely discovered at GSI. Its history marks the global competition in heavy element science: GSI (Germany), Dubna (Russia), RIKEN (Japan), and formerly Berkeley Lab, each contributing. As of 2025, it is the heaviest element (tied with hassium's mass number 277/287) discovered solely by GSI. The element’s name and data are now stable in the periodic table.

Data Table

Property Darmstadtium (Ds)
Atomic number (Z) 110
Element symbol Ds
Category Synthetic transactinide (group-10 transition metal)
Atomic mass [281] (based on most stable isotope, ^281Ds)
Electron config. [Rn] 5f^14 6d^8 7s^2 (predicted)
Electrons per shell 2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 16, 2
Common oxidation states +2, +4, +6 (predicted)
Group, period, block 10, 7, d-block
Phase at STP Solid (metal), predicted
Crystal structure Face-centered cubic (predicted)
Density (solid) ~30–35 g/cm³ (calculated, very high)
Melting point Unknown (predicted >2000 K)
Boiling point Unknown
Covalent radius ~128 pm (calculated)
Key isotopes ^281Ds (t_½ ≈ 10 s)
Discovery 1994, GSI Darmstadt (lead + nickel fusion)
Named after City of Darmstadt, Germany
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