Marcus Aurelius
| Marcus Aurelius | |
|---|---|
| |
| Marcus Aurelius, Roman emperor and Stoic philosopher | |
| Tradition | Stoicism, Roman philosophy |
| Influenced by | Epictetus, Chrysippus, Zeno of Citium, Socrates |
| Lifespan | 121–180 CE |
| Notable ideas | Meditations; Stoic ethics of duty, endurance, and rationality; philosophy of the ruling life |
| Occupation | Emperor, Philosopher, Author |
| Influenced | Later Stoicism, Christian philosophy, modern Existentialism and Self-help philosophy |
| Wikidata | Q1430 |
Marcus Aurelius Antoninus (121–180 CE) was a Roman emperor whose fame rests not only on his rule over the empire’s vast territories but also on his life as a Stoic philosopher. He ruled as emperor from 161 until his death, enduring wars, rebellions and plague. Yet Marcus is often remembered most for a private work of spiritual reflection known today as Meditations. In this series of diary-like notes he sought to apply Stoic ethics to daily life. For later generations Marcus became a model of a “philosopher-king,” admired for trying to live with integrity and wisdom even while facing immense responsibilities. This article explores Marcus’s life and education, his Stoic philosophy and writings, how he applied practical ethics in his reign, and his enduring legacy and reception.
Early Life and Education
Marcus was born in Rome on April 26, 121 CE, into a prominent senatorial family. His full name at birth was Marcus Annius Verus. A child of nobility, Marcus’s paternal family was already established in high office (his grandfather had been consul and prefect of Rome) and his mother came from a wealthy family. From these connections he inherited social status and material comfort, but also early exposure to Roman aristocratic values. Even as a boy he was noted for his calm temper and studious nature.
Education in Marcus’s youth was typical for an elite Roman: private tutors taught him Greek and Latin language, literature, law and rhetoric. One of his teachers was the famous orator Marcus Cornelius Fronto, known for his eloquence. Marcus performed well in these studies but apparently grew restless with life as a lecturer or lawyer. In his teenage years he discovered Greek literature and philosophy, and in particular the writings of the Stoic philosopher Epictetus. A story recounted by Marcus himself tells how, at about age 11, he imitated a Stoic to demonstrate his early zeal: he slept on a rug on the floor instead of his bed, following a strict ascetic practice. His mother intervened to preserve his health, but the tale shows that Marcus was drawn very young to the Stoic ideal of self-discipline and simplicity.
In 136, at age 15, Marcus’s fortunes changed dramatically. The emperor Hadrian, who had no son of his own, picked Titus Aurelius Antoninus (later known as Antoninus Pius) as his heir, on the condition that Antoninus adopt Marcus and another youth, Lucius Verus. After Antoninus became emperor in 138 following Hadrian’s death, he formally adopted Marcus (renaming him Marcus Aelius Aurelius Verus) and Lucius, making them successors in line for the throne. Marcus thus became part of the imperial family. When he married Antoninus’s daughter Faustina the Younger in 145, Marcus’s position was even further secured. By this marriage Faustina and Marcus, though legally first cousins, were bound by both family ties and imperial rank.
During these years Marcus combined his official duties with continued study. He served as consul three times (first in 140, again in 145, and in 161), which meant he was active in government and law. In 147 Antoninus gave Marcus the imperium and tribunician powers – essentially making him junior co-emperor. This allowed Marcus from then on to share fully in running the empire. At the same time, Marcus devoted himself increasingly to philosophy, especially Stoicism. He read many authors (Epicurus and Cicero among them) but was most influenced by Stoic teachers. One of his mentors, Junius Rusticus, gave him a copy of Epictetus’s discourses. Marcus wrote of feeling joy in embracing these Stoic ideas, which taught that mankind’s greatest good comes from practicing virtue and living in harmony with nature. By the time he reached his forties, Marcus had shaped himself into a devout Stoic and a thoughtful, solemn public figure.
Becoming Emperor and Reign
Emperor Antoninus Pius died on March 7, 161 CE, leaving Marcus Aurelius and his adoptive brother Lucius Verus as co-emperors. According to accounts of the time, Marcus insisted that Lucius be named jointly as emperor, even though Lucius had little support and was younger. This decision can be seen as reflecting Marcus’s sense of fairness and duty: he felt it would honor the plan under which he was raised to power. In practice, Marcus took the leading role. For most of his reign he was the senior emperor, while Lucius deferred to him after initial military successes in the East.
From the very start Marcus’s reign proved challenging. In 162 CE the Parthian Empire (to Rome’s east) invaded a Roman client kingdom. Lucius Verus led the military response from Antioch, and important generals like Avidius Cassius helped repel the Parthians. This campaign ended successfully by 166 CE, but returning troops brought a deadly disease back home. Historians call this the Antonine Plague (possibly smallpox or measles). It swept through the empire for years, weakening populations and armies and causing social distress.
At the same time, rebellion and warfare flared on other fronts. In 167 or 168, Germanic tribes beyond the Rhine and Danube rivers launched raids into Roman territory, even threatening Italy itself. Marcus and Lucius (and their armies) hurried north to confront these invasions, starting what became known as the Marcomannic Wars. During this time Marcus personally campaigned on the frontiers of modern Austria and Central Europe, and it was in these years (around 170–175 CE) that he composed much of the writings later known as the Meditations. These were private notes written in Greek, often during breaks in military action, to guide his own daily conduct.
Challenges continued: in 175 CE a powerful governor, Avidius Cassius (who had helped defeat the Parthians), briefly rebelled in the East. Cassius declared himself emperor, possibly hearing a false rumor that Marcus had died. Marcus traveled to Syria to confront this threat. Before his arrival Cassius’s own officers killed him, ending the revolt. Marcus famously displayed mercy and dignity after quelling this upheaval: he reportedly pardoned the rebellious soldiers and refused to view Cassius’s severed head when it was sent to him. This restraint was later pointed to as an example of his commitment to pity and justice (though Stoics held that murder can never be a righteous act, even of traitors).
In 177 CE Marcus made a decision that would have dramatic future consequences. He designated his son, Commodus – then just sixteen years old – as co-emperor. This choice broke the previous “adoptive” tradition of picking the best man for the job (as Marcus himself had been chosen), since Commodus was Marcus’s biological son. By all accounts, Marcus was a loving father and may have felt compelled to secure his son’s succession to avoid civil conflict. In any case, this decision tied the dynasty’s fate to Commodus, who turned out to be an irresponsible ruler. Marcus died on March 17, 180 CE at his military headquarters in Sirmium (in present-day Serbia). With his death the era known as the Pax Romana (two centuries of comparative peace and stability) effectively ended. Marcus had led the empire through immense trials, keeping it intact despite plague, invasion, and rebellion. Ancient historian Cassius Dio remarked that Marcus “amid unusual and extraordinary difficulties… preserved the empire,” though he suffered personal misfortunes and failed to find in his son the virtues he had hoped to instill.
Stoic Philosophy and Influences
Marcus’s philosophical outlook was shaped by Stoicism, a Greek school of philosophy founded in the 3rd century BCE. Stoics taught that the universe is governed by a rational order (often called logos) and that virtue – living in accordance with reason and nature – is the only true good. Everything else (money, health, honor, even life) is, properly speaking, neither good nor bad but “indifferent”: what matters is how we use these things. Marcus’s fellow Stoics included philosophical figures like Epictetus, Zeno, and Musonius Rufus.
Throughout Meditations Marcus acknowledges debts to teachers and family (his very first book is a list of people who taught him some virtue or showed him a moral example). He names Rusticus as giving him Epictetus’s writings to study, and credits other Stoics for instilling in him patience, honesty, and humility. Romans in this era often saw philosophers as living examples of moral principles. Like Epictetus – who had been a slave turned philosopher – Marcus believed in practical training as well as study. Stoics classified their philosophy into three parts: the physical (understanding nature), the ethical (living rightly), and the logical (thinking clearly). Marcus’s writing follows that tradition. He advises himself on “the point of view of the cosmos,” reminding himself that all events are part of a larger natural order. At the same time he writes repeatedly about ethical conduct (for example, equanimity, justice, and kindness to others) and about controlling judgment and inner impressions (to avoid misjudgments and emotional turmoil).
Importantly, Marcus did not produce formal philosophical treatises or engage in public debates. His Meditations, the only work for which he is known, are not a systematic philosophy text but a personal notebook. In this sense Marcus’s “method” was introspective practice. He often composed in the moment, jotting down reminders in the camps and palaces where he lived. He wrote in Greek, using technical terms familiar to Stoic philosophy, presuming that he alone needed to understand them. The purpose of these writings, as scholars note, was not to argue a point academically but to train his own soul. Marcus envisioned himself as an apprentice to wisdom, constantly exercising his own character. He often likened the mind to a plant or a piece of fabric that needs repeated work (“dyeing one’s soul”) to take on a virtuous color.
Stoicism teaches that external events are largely beyond our control, and that true freedom comes from how we choose to think and act. Marcus embraced this wholeheartedly. Central to his view were the four cardinal Stoic virtues: wisdom, justice, courage, and temperance. He repeated to himself that only these inner qualities matter for happiness. Money, status, or even the pleasures of the body cannot make a life good if these virtues are lacking. He also believed in a kind of human fraternity: all people share the same spark of reason and belong to one worldwide community. Thus he urged himself to treat other human beings as kin or friends by nature, even if they behaved poorly.
Another key Stoic idea was acceptance of fate. Marcus frequently meditated on life’s impermanence: that everything decays and changes, and death is natural. He thought the wise person “loves fate” (amor fati), meaning they welcome whatever happens — earthly good or bad — as part of nature’s plan. In Meditations he trains himself to meet even the loss of loved ones or personal hardship with composure, reminding himself that grief over what is natural only causes pain. In sum, Marcus’s philosophy combined a stern personal discipline with a broadly compassionate view of humanity, organized around living “according to nature” by doing one’s duty rationally and ethically.
Meditations: A Journal of Self-Discipline
Marcus’s most famous legacy is his Meditations (Latin Meditationes, Greek title Ta eis Heauton, “To Himself”). This work is essentially a collection of personal notes and aphorisms, written book by book during the last decade of his life. The writing was not meant for publication; instead it was Marcus’s own journal, a tool to remind himself of Stoic lessons and to guide his thoughts amid stressful times. He opens Book One with gratitude lists — thanking family and tutors for virtues they taught him. The remaining books contain his reflections on life, virtue, mortality and the universe.
The style of Meditations is intimate and direct. Marcus often writes commands or exhortations in the first person: for example, “Remain calm and indifferent to changes of fortune,” or “When you wake tomorrow, say to yourself… others will jostle you, or be ungrateful, violent, envious: all such things happen to them because they have not understood good and evil.” Such entries read like a personal coach’s advice to one’s soul. There is very little narrative or context; instead, we see Marcus wrestling with recurring real-life problems and reminding himself what is right. Typical entries stress humility (e.g. remembering the insignificance of human vanity), patience, duty, and the fleeting nature of both praise and misfortune.
Several key themes run through Meditations. One is the “cosmic perspective”: Marcus constantly reminds himself that he is a tiny part of the whole universe, which is vast and eternal. What seems urgent or great in a human context (an opponent’s insult, a stubborn ailment) is almost nothing on the scale of time and nature. Thus he urges himself to keep perspective: “How small, trivial are all human things,” he notes. Related is his focus on mortality: he perennially reminds himself that death is close — “Don’t live as if there are a thousand years left!” By keeping the idea of death lucid and present, he argues, we appreciate life more and avoid vanity and fear. In one passage he even comforts himself with reason: fearing death is pointless, since it only leads to either nonexistence (which is nothing to fear) or to some new experience, in which case it can’t be bad either.
Another major theme is interpersonal ethics. Marcus repeatedly urges kindness and justice. In book after book he trains himself to see others’ faults compassionately: “When you are offended at someone’s lack of good character, remember that he knows not good from evil.” He tries to meet harm with understanding rather than anger, always striving to respond as a rational social being. For Marcus, every social relationship was an opportunity to practice duty. He wrote that the same divine reason that made him could be found in others, meaning essentially everyone has good in them somewhere. He also wrote moral prescriptions: be fair even to unjust people, speak the truth plainly, and make virtue pleasant as others do in kindness.
Virtue itself appears in Meditations as the only genuine wealth. Money and honor come and go, says Marcus; but if one has lived justly, no trouble can truly harm one’s character. For example, when armies brought plague victims, or when battles were lost, he repeatedly told himself that these were not insults to his soul and could not rob him of virtue. He often compares the mind to a citadel that can only be invaded if it opens itself to fear or anger. In short, essentials of Stoic ethics are written not as abstract principles but as practical reminders to live each day well. The effectiveness of these writings is shown by how Marcus often returns to similar points: control your thoughts, accept whatever nature sends, do your duty without complaint.
In content Meditations touches on metaphysical questions but always returns to ethics. Marcus wonders “Why is the universe here? How to live and do right?” Yet his answer is never an elaborate creed. Instead, he proposes a disciplined way of life: always ask what is within your power (like your judgments and actions) and concentrate on those. When problems or emotions arise, step back and view them “impartially,” a common Stoic exercise. If a situation cannot be changed, one should acclimate to it. If it can be changed, spring into rational action. The book’s unity is therapeutic: it is essentially Marcus exercising his own soul, arranging his inner thoughts so that he might face each moment with the right attitude. This practical, personal approach explains why Meditations, though unpolished, has resonated through the centuries as authentic and direct wisdom.
Governance and Stoic Ethics
Marcus Aurelius strove to apply his Stoic principles in how he governed the empire. He believed a ruler should act for the common good, with justice and moderation. Within the bounds of the Roman system, he made a point of improving the legal code. He codified new laws to protect weaker parties: for instance, his edicts offered greater rights to slaves and children in inheritance cases, and removed some legal cruelties. While historians note that he did not revolutionize Roman society, he is credited with refining earlier policies and smoothing out inequalities in Roman law. In one phrase, Marcus practiced the role of a statesman as an “ombudsman” for the people.
His Stoic ethics also showed in his personal behavior. Reports say he lived simply for an emperor: he wore dark, modest clothing, ate frugally, and sometimes mixed with common soldiers rather than distancing himself. He felt entitled to luxury because of his rank, but he rarely indulged it. In army camps he shared hardships with his men and got purified by simpler food and routines. He tried not to punish wrongdoers with excessive severity and even tried to turn enemies into friends through clemency. When facing dissent within the Senate or nobility, he warned himself against pride or anger, reminding himself that a leader’s decisions should spring from justice rather than ego.
Marcus also undertook acts that symbolized his respect for philosophy and learning. On a journey to Athens late in life he formally appointed the first chairs (professorships) for each of the four principal schools of philosophy: Stoic, Platonic, Aristotelian (Peripatetic) and Epicurean. This move showed his belief that philosophical education served society as a whole. In private, he continued to study and to write to old friends like Fronto (his childhood tutor). These letters and orders form a small body of writing outside Meditations that illustrate him dealing with official matters — though none of them fully articulate his philosophical views. Nonetheless, from what survives, Marcus appears to have valued fairness in administration. He communicated frequently with generals and governors to see justice being done, and reportedly handled petitions personally when possible.
Even in war and crisis Marcus tried to lead by Stoic example. Soldiers’ letters from the time describe him as calm under fire. During the long northern campaigns, he kept discipline and courage alive in his troops with a kind of philosophical morale. He shared hardships and spoke to them about duty. There is a famous silver plate discovered from near the Danube that seems to show a humble Marcus standing not triumphantly on horseback (like traditional victorious emperors) but in a simple pose, reflecting his idea of constant self-control. When surrounded by chaos — be it a siege or an epidemic — Marcus’s mindset, as reflected in Meditations, was to focus on small right actions now rather than despair. He aimed always to preserve his own virtue even when all else was slipping away. In that sense he practiced the Stoic motto “Live as if at any moment you might have to face your death” by treating each day’s duties as vital.
Influence and Legacy
Marcus Aurelius’s reputation after his death grew steadily as the years passed. Ancient historians viewed his reign as the last good era of the Roman Empire, a comfortable endnote to the peaceful Pax Romana. Since late antiquity he has symbolized wisdom in power. Medieval and Renaissance thinkers who had access to Meditations saw in him a model of a ruler guided by conscience rather than tyranny. Even though the Christian tradition that followed often downplayed pagan philosophers, Marcus’s writings survived in monastic libraries and were eventually printed in many languages.
In the Enlightenment and modern era Marcus’s ideas experienced a revival. Philosophers such as Descartes and Leibniz studied Stoic ethics. In the 19th century liberal thinkers like John Stuart Mill praised the Meditations (Mill called it “the highest ethical product of the ancient mind”). Marcus’s famous idea that “only virtue is good” resonated with later virtue ethicists. His emphasis on rational self-management and emotional resilience also found a new audience in the 20th and 21st centuries. For example, cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT), a leading form of psychotherapy, draws conceptually on Stoic insights about changing thoughts to change feelings. The founder of CBT, Aaron Beck, explicitly traced the therapy’s roots back to Stoicism.
''Culturally, Marcus has remained prominent. His image appears in films, novels and motivational media as the ideal Stoic emperor. The large bronze equestrian statue of Marcus on Rome’s Capitol overlooks the city and became a well-known symbol of enduring leadership (it famously survived the Middle Ages by being misidentified as Constantine, thus escaping bronze recycling). In the publishing world, Meditations is regularly reinterpreted as a self-help classic. Modern author Ryan Holiday’s book The Daily Stoic and popular blogs frequently quote Marcus’s aphorisms (though often without noting the fuller context). Some athletes and CEOs cite him as inspiration for discipline and composure. This widespread popularity also brings misunderstandings: many self-help sources urge trying to “be stoic” in the casual sense of suppressing emotion. In contrast, true Stoic practice was deeper: understanding and transforming one’s emotional reactions through rational analysis, not simply ignoring feelings.
Nonetheless, Marcus’s practical counsel — like treating every setback as a chance to exercise patience, or remembering that day-to-day irritations are insignificant in the grand scheme — continues to resonate. He is often presented as someone who maintained kindness and altruism even through suffering and violence. His fame as a philosopher-king has overshadowed more critical views. But as an intellectual figure he stands apart: he is not revered for great philosophical innovations (in that sense he is not on the level of Plato or Aristotle), but rather for being a philosophically-minded ruler who endeavored to put philosophy into practice on a grand stage.
Critiques and Debates
Scholars and critics have occasionally debated aspects of Marcus’s life and thought. One area of critique is that Marcus, for all his wisdom, struggled with the demands of rulership. The arguably fateful decision to appoint his son Commodus – whom Marcus saw as his heir “in the best possible way” – is often cited as a tragic mistake. Commodus’s misrule turned the era after Marcus into one of crisis. Some say that by this choice Marcus allowed dynastic loyalty to trump merit, undermining the very ideals of justice and practicality he espoused. Historians point out that Marcus himself lamented Commodus’s failings in private, suggesting he knew he had erred.
Another debate touches on how fully Marcus could live by Stoic ideals while being emperor. Some modern thinkers argue that Stoic philosophy can encourage passivity or acceptance of social wrongs, and question whether Marcus might have turned too much to inner virtue at the cost of solving larger problems. It is true Stoicism teaches acceptance of things outside one’s control, and Marcus did not ignore events beyond his reach; but critics wonder if such acceptance could conflict with the responsibility to actively fight injustice. On the other hand, many defend him by noting that he did act vigorously against threats. His acceptance usually applied to personal hardships (like illness or loss) rather than political action. For instance, granting clemency to Rome’s enemies after rebellions could be either a Stoic bigheartedness or a political misstep, depending on perspective.
Some also note that Meditations, by its private nature, can seem fragmented or repetitive. Critics might say it lacks a clear narrative or coherent system because it was never meant for an audience. This “stream of consciousness” style makes Marcus a powerful inspirational voice but a difficult philosopher to study systematically. In scholarly terms, Marcus is not treated as a major thinker who developed new theories; rather, he is seen as an eminent moral exemplar. Indeed, even Marcus himself admitted he was still far from being a sage, by his own Stoic standards.
There are also more traditional historical critiques. Roman historians pointed out that Marcus’s laws, while humane, did not always eliminate social inequality. For example, under his rule the legal status of people in lower classes (such as slaves) remained clearly different from the privileged classes; the Roman criminal codes still distinguished harshly between social ranks. In terms of religion, Marcus has a mixed reputation: he personally followed Roman pagan beliefs and reportedly looked down on Christians as subversives. After one crisis he did issue laws that allowed local authorities to punish Christians if accused, although these were not nationwide persecutions decreed by the emperor himself. Still, church histories note that persecutions (like the martyrdoms in Lyon around 177 CE) took place amidst the chaos of war. Marcus was not the instigator, but because he disliked Christianity he did little to protect the innocent from popular fury. From the Stoic angle, one might argue he tolerated all religions in public, but modern critiques point out that Stoic ideals of unity and tolerance did not extend to Christians under his rule.
In philosophical debates, Stoicism itself has come under criticism and Marcus shares in that. Critics of Stoicism at large have charged it with promoting emotional detachment or with being overly individualistic. Some say Stoics seem to say “let bad things happen and just don’t get mad,” which seems unjust. The standard Stoic reply (echoed by Marcus) is that reacting angrily is worse for the soul, and that understanding nature’s order does not mean inaction — Marcus himself led armies. The contention remains whether Stoic urge of accepting fate could ever dampen the will to improve society. Marcus’s example is often used in these debates: by some he is lauded for incredible self-discipline, by others seen as too otherworldly for practical politics.
Legacy
Despite criticisms, Marcus Aurelius’s legacy is vast in cultural and intellectual history. In philosophy he influenced the development of virtue ethics and humanistic thought. His writings have been continuously read since antiquity, surviving as one of the few complete autobiographical philosophical texts from the ancient world. His phrase “live according to nature” and the idea of inner citadel remain central images in ethical teaching.
Beyond philosophy, Marcus’s name evokes a golden era of calm authority. His reign is often idealized as the last age of good government before decline. In this way his persona has sometimes overshadowed subsequent history: for example, the notion of the “Five Good Emperors” (of whom Marcus was the last) became a handy shorthand in later Roman history. Even today someone might refer to their times as “a new Golden Age” when paying tribute to Marcus’s example.
In modern times Marcus is often held as an exemplar by individuals aspiring to conscientious leadership and self-mastery. Many people in high-stress jobs or who endure personal hardship find inspiration in his meditations. Universities and military academies sometimes include his writings among lessons on leadership and ethics. Books and talks on practical philosophy frequently cite his stoic rules of life. The influence also extends to movements like minimalism and mindfulness: ideas about focusing on essentials and accepting what we cannot change have parallels in Marcus’s advice to remain untroubled by luxury or misfortune.
Memorials to Marcus still stand. The equestrian statue on Rome’s Capitoline Hill (a rare surviving bronze statue of a Roman emperor) reminds visitors of his lasting image. Numerous paintings, books and plays have portrayed him, often highlighting his dual role as ruler and philosopher. He is also the only Roman emperor honored with an article in many philosophy encyclopedias of the modern era, reflecting academic as well as popular interest in his thought.
Selected Works and Writings
The principal work attributed to Marcus Aurelius is Meditations (Greek Ta eis Heauton), composed in twelve books. It survives in many manuscripts and has been translated into numerous languages. Besides Meditations, the only other significant writings connected to Marcus are:
- Letters to Fronto: Fragments of the correspondence between Marcus and his early tutor Fronto. These letters, discovered in a palimpsest in the 19th century, reveal aspects of Marcus’s personal life and education but contain little explicit philosophy.
- Imperial Edicts and Speeches: A few official letters and speeches by Marcus survive, mostly quoted by later historians. They show him engaging with Senate decisions and military matters.
- Literary Fragments: Different sources attribute some lost Greek works (epigrams, orations) to Marcus, but none survive intact.
In terms of form, Meditations remains the definitive text. Each book of Meditations can be thought of as entries from a journal: there is no single argument or narrative, but a consistent voice throughout practicing Stoic self-improvement. Because Marcus did not prepare these writings for publication, they read more like scattered reflections. Still, the thematic unity is striking: chapters often end with one-liners such as, “Be content with what you are doing now,” or “Do nothing without a purpose.” These distilled maxims have made Meditations a perennial reference for advice on living.
Conclusion
Marcus Aurelius was an extraordinary historical figure: an emperor at the height of Roman power who strove to be a philosopher at the same time. His life illustrates how Stoic philosophy can be applied to daily governance and personal conduct. Under great external pressures he practiced humility, self-discipline and kindness, believing these virtues to be the true measure of a person. His Meditations offer a window into a ruler’s mind seeking peace and order in himself amidst chaos around him. Over time, Marcus has come to symbolize the idea that moral integrity and rational reflection matter even in leadership. Today he remains a source of guidance for those interested in practical ethics and the art of living. His lessons – that we can shape our inner character, bear hardship with dignity, and view every moment as an opportunity for virtue – continue to inspire readers more than seventeen centuries after he wrote them.