Kamo no Mabuchi

Kamo no Mabuchi
	Kamo no Mabuchi, Japanese philologist and poet of the Kokugaku school
Tradition	Shinto, Kokugaku, East Asian thinkers
Influenced by	Classical Japanese literature, Shinto tradition
Lifespan	1697–1769
Notable ideas	Revival of ancient Japanese poetry; emphasis on man’yōshū and makoto (sincerity); development of Kojiki-den studies; foundations for later Shinto scholarship
Occupation	Philologist, Poet, Scholar
Influenced	Motoori Norinaga, Hirata Atsutane, Kokugaku
Wikidata	Q1343397

Kamo no Mabuchi (1697–1769) was a Japanese scholar, poet, and philologist of the Edo period. He became one of the leading figures in the kokugaku (National Learning) movement, which sought to rediscover Japan’s ancient literature and religious traditions. Born into a Shintō priest family, Mabuchi combined his training in Shintō ritual with a lifelong devotion to classical Japanese poetry. He argued that works like the Man’yōshū (the 8th-century imperial poetry anthology) and ancient Shintō prayers (norito) embodied a pure Japanese spirit, one unsullied by later foreign (especially Chinese) influences. Mabuchi’s writings and teachings helped spark a revival of early poetic styles and Shintō thought that influenced Japanese intellectual life well beyond his own lifetime.

Early Life and Education

Kamo no Mabuchi was born in 1697 in Hamamatsu (then part of Enshū Province, now Shizuoka Prefecture) as Masanobu (also read Masafuji) Okabe. He was the third son of Okabe Masanobu, a hereditary Shintō priest (kannushi) at the local Kamo Shrine. His family claimed descent from the venerable Kamo clan of Kyoto, which had long served the famous Kamo Shrines. From childhood, Mabuchi was immersed in the Shintō tradition of his family and encouraged to study poetry. He learned reading and composition at a young age and by roughly age eleven had begun to participate in local waka (classical Japanese poem) gatherings. A family friend, the poet Kada Masako, and her husband Sugiura Kuniakira (an aristocratic scholar-poet) gave him early instruction in the art of waka composition and the poetic conventions of the time.

In his mid-twenties Mabuchi’s interest in literature and learning deepened. He met Kada no Azumamaro (1669–1736), a leading scholar of Kyoto’s nascent kokugaku school, around 1720. Azumamaro – a Shintō priest himself – became Mabuchi’s mentor. Mabuchi traveled to Kyoto in 1728 to study at Azumamaro’s academy, returning again in 1735 for additional training. During this period he also studied with Sugiura Kuniakira’s family and with scholars in both waka poetry and classical Chinese learning (the Kobun-jigaku tradition of Ogyū Sorai). Initially Mabuchi learned both Chinese classics and ancient Japanese texts, but he soon began to turn away from Confucian and Neo-Confucian scholarship. Instead, under Azumamaro’s influence he devoted himself to native Japanese classics. By mastering the oldest poetry and Shintō liturgies, he hoped to recover the language and spirit of early Japanese culture.

At one point Mabuchi was adopted through marriage into another family in Hamamatsu (a common practice), but he remained focused on scholarship. His father and father-in-law soon granted him permission to leave and study full-time in Kyoto. Even before Azumamaro’s death in 1736, Mabuchi was being hailed among Azumamaro’s disciples as a successor in the study of Japan’s ancient literature.

Career and Major Works

After Azumamaro died in 1736, Mabuchi shifted his base to Edo (modern Tokyo), then the center of political power. In Edo he began lecturing on Japanese classics and soon gained a reputation as a leading authority on the Man’yōshū (the oldest anthology of Japanese poetry). In 1742 (some sources say 1746) he became wagaku-goyō, a special consultant or tutor in Japanese studies to the Tayasu family – a collateral branch of the Tokugawa shogunal house. Mabuchi served as literary tutor to Tayasu Munetake (1715–1771), a son of Shōgun Tokugawa Yoshimune, for many years (roughly 1742–1760). This post increased his standing among the samurai elite and gave him the time to write and teach extensively.

Throughout his career Mabuchi wrote numerous commentaries and essays on ancient texts. His collected works filled twelve volumes. His writing combined philological analysis of language with philosophical reflection on Japan’s identity. Early on he published a commentary titled Engishiki Noritokai on the Shintō prayers (norito) found in the Engishiki (a 10th-century shrine and court ritual compendium). He later produced works such as Man’yōkai, a series of annotations on the Man’yōshū; Kanjikō (a study of Chinese characters usage); and Noritokō (study of Shintō prayer formulas). One of his most famous works is Kokuikō (often translated “A Study of the Idea of the Nation”), a lengthy treatise that celebrated Japan’s ancient culture and critiqued foreign influences. Another important text is Kaikō (1764, “Inquiry into the Idea of Poetry”), in which Mabuchi argued that the study and practice of classical Japanese poetry could revive a direct, sincere spirit in the present. His Goikō (literally “Five Essays” or “Five Ancient Matters”) discussed subjects of literature, poetry, language, national heritage, and writing. In addition to scholarly works, Mabuchi composed his own waka poems and occasional playful kyōka (humorous verse) under pen names like Shōjō, Moryō, Iyō, and Agatai. These poems were collected in personal anthologies.

In 1763 Mabuchi traveled through the Yamato region (ancient Nara Province) and met Motoori Norinaga (1730–1801), who then became his most famous student. Norinaga would go on to be the leading kokugaku scholar of the next generation. In 1764 Mabuchi retired from official service and established his own private academy, called Agatai (often translated “Hall of Sincerity”), in the Nihonbashi district of Edo. There he taught a large circle of disciples. By some accounts he had over 350 students and at least three distinct “sub-schools” tracing to his teachings. Although Mabuchi spent much of his working life in the cities of Kyoto and Edo, he often returned to his rural home village Iba. He believed that by observing the simple, unspoiled lives of farmers he could glimpse the genuine qualities of human nature that ancient Japan esteemed.

Kamo no Mabuchi died in Edo on October 30, 1769 (traditional calendar: 30th day of the 10th month). He was roughly 72 (or 73 by the Japanese counting of years) at the time of his death. By then he had firmly established himself as a master of ancient Japanese poetry and thought, leaving behind a body of work that would be treasured by later scholars of kokugaku and Shintō.

Method and Philosophy

Mabuchi’s approach was philological and nativist. He treated ancient texts not simply as literature but as keys to understanding Japan’s national spirit. Central to his thought was the search for Japan’s original kokoro – a term meaning “heart” or “spirit.” Mabuchi believed that an uncorrupted kokoro had existed in Japan’s distant past, and that this spirit was present in the country’s oldest poems and rituals. He argued that by studying the Man’yōshū and early norito, one could recover the heartfelt feelings and values that defined the Japanese people. This stands in contrast to later ages, in Mabuchi’s view, when foreign ideas (from China) had obscured the native ethos.

He coined phrases like inishie no michi (“the Ancient Way”) and kuni no tefuri (“our country’s manner/way”) to refer to this original Japanese outlook. He placed these in opposition to kara no tefuri (“the Chinese manner/way”), by which he meant the imported Confucian, Buddhist, and rationalist traditions. Mabuchi portrayed the Japanese Way as flexible, nuanced, and emotionally rich. He often described it using images of nature: for example, Japanese poetry frequently evokes the changing seasons, emphasizing subtle transitions between states (blossoming and withering, dawn to dusk, etc.). By contrast, he viewed the Confucian/Chinese approach as emphasizing fixed categories and sharp distinctions. In Mabuchi’s telling, Chinese moralist books taught strict rules for governing humans, because they assumed people to be unruly; but Japan’s people were naturally pure and sincere, needing no harsh external control. In short, he believed the Japanese to be inherently decent by nature, revealable through poetry and sentiment, whereas Chinese thought imposed moral lessons from the outside.

A vivid way Mabuchi expressed his idea of Japan’s natural spirit was through his valorization of emotion and poetry. He famously argued that poetry (verse) could directly convey human feeling in ways that philosophical prose could not. In his Kaikō essay, Mabuchi wrote that engaging with and composing Japan’s classical poetry could “mentally transport” people back to an ancient Japanese mindset. He compared contemporary Japanese culture to a river flowing down the mountain and urged people to return to the “peak” of Japan’s tradition – a peak of simplicity, sincerity, and courageous frankness. He believed ancient poets, using simple natural imagery and a sincere tone, expressed universal truths that later scholarly writing had lost. In short, Mabuchi saw the Man’yōshū and the mythic Kojiki chronicle as moral guides of the soul; their poetic lessons, he argued, were more genuinely uplifting than the cold rationalism of Confucian texts.

Mabuchi’s philosophical outlook drew on Shintō ideas. He held that the world was sanctified and that humans were born with a pure, “bright” heart (akarui makoto) that connected them to the kami (spirits). He identified sincerity (makoto) as a key Japanese value. He even took up elements of Daoist thought (the Chinese concept of wu wei, non-action or effortless action), interpreting them through a Shintō lens as naturalness and harmony with the universe. Mabuchi’s ideal person had a “naive” and honest quality – brave, gentle, loyal. He often styled himself as imitating the ancients: for example, in his later years he dressed plainly and arranged his living space in a simple, archaic manner, out of respect for the old ways. In his reading, Japan’s ancient creation myths, the reverence for the emperor’s divine lineage, and the practice of Shintō rites were all manifestations of this same simple, upright heart.

Importantly, Mabuchi did not advocate open political revolution. He did not criticize the shogunal government of his day. In fact, he praised Tokugawa Ieyasu, the founder of the Tokugawa dynasty, for establishing a regime that at least honored Shintō as Japan’s foundational faith. Mabuchi also upheld the Japanese feudal order as long as it rested on traditional values. His focus was cultural and spiritual renewal rather than direct political change. He contended that “artificial” learning – by which he meant rigid Confucian or Buddhist doctrines – had only corrupted people’s innate goodness. For Mabuchi, the cure was a return to the intangible essence of Japan’s past as found in poetry and ritual, rather than the pursuit of new institutions.

Influence and Reception

In Mabuchi’s lifetime, his emphasis on Japan’s ancient classics began to attract a significant following. His school of thought spread mainly in Edo but also in other parts of Japan. By the 1760s he had hundreds of students, and three main lineages (sub-schools) of his teachings were recognized. His ideas found receptive audiences among samurai, merchant class intellectuals, and Shintō priests who were interested in native traditions. The publication of his works (often as manuscript commentaries or compilations) helped raise the profile of kokugaku in an era still dominated by Confucian academies. Other scholars of the National Learning school – notably Motoori Norinaga and later Hirata Atsutane – would cite Mabuchi as a major influence.

Mabuchi’s meeting with Motoori Norinaga in 1763 was especially pivotal. Norinaga had come to study under him briefly, and Mabuchi’s approach clearly shaped Norinaga’s later work on the Kojiki and Manyōshū. Through Norinaga and others, Mabuchi’s legacy earned a place in Japan’s intellectual history as one of the “Four Great Kokugaku Scholars” (along with Norinaga, Hirata, and another scholar, often considered Uzawa or others). Together these thinkers established a tradition of Japanese scholarly nationalism.

Later generations continued to study Mabuchi’s writings. In the 19th century, scholars of literature and religion kept his works in circulation, using them as sources on early Japanese language and custom. His philological approach – paying close attention to ancient grammar and word usage – influenced how classical Japanese texts were edited and interpreted in the Meiji era and beyond. In the 20th century, kokugaku as a whole (with its concept of the unique Japanese spirit) was at times invoked in nationalist discourse. Some wartime ideologues praised Mabuchi’s reverence for the emperor and purity of origin, though this was a later appropriation of his ideas. Modern academics generally treat Mabuchi as a complex figure: on one hand a brilliant literary historian of great devotion to old traditions, and on the other hand a product of his time who romanticized “ancient Japan.”

Critiques and Debates

Mabuchi’s work generated both admiration and debate among scholars. His insistence on a sharp divide between “Japanese” and “Chinese” modes of thought was criticized even in his own time by some Confucian-educated scholars, who found his views extreme or simplistic. Many of Mabuchi’s arguments rested on oral tradition and poetic imagination more than on empirical evidence, a fact some scholars note as a weakness. For example, his belief that the heart of early Japanese people was universally “pure and straightforward” has been called by historians a romantic ideal rather than a historical reality. In practice, even in the Nara period Japan absorbed many Chinese customs, so Mabuchi’s portrayal of a completely unadulterated past is seen as selective.

Later critics have also discussed how Mabuchi continued to use certain Chinese concepts personally even as he denounced them. For instance, his praise of “non-action” has clear Daoist resonance. This suggests that his nativism was not a complete rejection of all foreign thought, but a reinterpreted fusion. Moreover, some modern researchers question Mabuchi’s notion of a monolithic “Japanese spirit.” They point out that in Mabuchi’s era, many intellectuals were experimenting with various blends of Shintō, Confucianism, and emerging European ideas, so the cultural landscape was more varied than he acknowledged.

Another debate concerns Mabuchi’s political legacy. While he himself remained respectful of the Tokugawa authorities, later nationalist movements selectively cited his work as evidence of an ancient, unbroken Japanese tradition. Critics argue that reading Mabuchi as a proto-nationalist oversimplifies his thought. He was primarily concerned with literature and spirituality, not modern politics. Nonetheless, the broader kokugaku emphasis on Shintō and emperor-worship did contribute to the ideological currents that flowed into the Meiji Restoration and even into state Shintō in the early 20th century. Historians continue to parse how much of this can be traced directly to Mabuchi’s own ideas versus the later development of kokugaku by his students and successors.

Legacy

Today Kamo no Mabuchi is remembered as a towering figure in the study of Japan’s classical literature and religion. He helped lay the foundations for modern research on the Man’yōshū and ancient Shintō rituals. His approach to texts – reading them closely in the original language and seeking their historical meaning – anticipated later disciplines of philology and literary criticism. University departments of Japanese literature and religious studies often trace their roots back to the scholars of kokugaku. The terms and concepts he popularized (such as kokoro as a defining feature of Japanese thought) are still used in discussions of Japanese culture and identity.

Mabuchi’s commentaries and essays remain part of the standard corpus for students of kokugaku history. He is often cited alongside Motoori Norinaga and others in histories of the Edo intellectual revival. In Shintō studies, his life is seen as an example of a scholar-priest who strove to revive Japan’s native faith outside the government Shintō system. Occasionally, local groups and literary societies organize readings of Mabuchi’s waka and prose. While few outside Japan are familiar with him by name, within Japan he holds the status of an important cultural pioneer.

Educational textbooks on kokugaku and Shintō frequently mention Mabuchi’s name among major thinkers. His advocacy for valuing Japan’s indigenous tradition over imported ideas foreshadowed later nationalist arguments, but in recent decades scholars have also highlighted his role as a cultural reformer rather than a political activist. In short, scholars see his legacy as twofold: he preserved and illuminated ancient Japanese texts, and he inspired patriotic pride in Japan’s unique past. As such, Kamo no Mabuchi is often called one of the founding fathers of Japan’s National Learning movement, with influence reaching into modern conceptions of Japanese history and religion.

Selected Works

Kokuikō (“Study of the Idea of the Nation”): Mabuchi’s chief philosophical treatise, in which he expounds the ideal of Japan’s ancient spirit and critiques reliance on foreign (Chinese) models.
Engishiki Noritokai (“Commentary on Engishiki Prayers”): An analysis of the norito (Shintō liturgical prayers) recorded in the Engishiki (a 10th-century compendium of rituals), explaining their language and meaning.
Man’yōkai (“Poetic Study on the Man’yōshū”): Mabuchi’s extensive commentary on the Man’yōshū, line by line, exploring the ancient wording and themes of the poems.
Kaikō (1764, “Inquiry into Poetry”): An essay arguing for the moral power of Japan’s native poetic style. Mabuchi claims that writing and contemplating Man’yōshū-style verse can reconnect people with the “sincerity” of the past.
Goikō (“Five Essays” or “Five Ancient Matters”): A collection of five treatises covering literature (bun), poetry (ka), national learning (koku), language (go), and writing (sho). This work discusses each subject in relation to Japan’s classics.
Kanjikō (“Study of Chinese Characters”): A philological work examining the use of kanji (Chinese characters) in ancient texts to clarify Japan’s early language.
Noritokō (“Study of Norito”): A work focusing on the prayers of Shintō, separate from the Engishiki commentary, emphasizing how these ritual texts embody the pure sentiments of Shintō.
Poetry Collections: Mabuchi wrote many waka poetry collections. One example is the Kamo Mabuchi Kashū, a personal anthology of his poems (some penned under the name Agatai) compiled later by his followers. These poems often reflect his favorite subjects – nature, Shintō, and loyalty – in the style of the Man’yōshū.

Timeline (Major Life Events)

1697: Born on March 4 in Iba, Enshū (modern Hamamatsu, Shizuoka).
1707–1710 (approx.): Begins formal poetry instruction; participates in poetry contests.
1720: Introduced to kokugaku scholar Kada no Azumamaro at a poetry gathering.
1728: Travels to Kyoto to study at Azumamaro’s kokugaku academy.
1735: Returns to Kyoto for several months of study under Azumamaro.
1736: Death of Kada no Azumamaro; Mabuchi shortly afterward moves to Edo.
1742: Enters service of the Tayasu (Tokugawa) family as a tutor in classical Japanese; begins lecturing on Man’yōshū and Shintō texts.
1746: Officially becomes Special Consultant for Japanese Learning to Tayasu Munetake (second son of Shogun Yoshimune).
1760: Retires from Tayasu service after about 14 years.
1763: Meets Motoori Norinaga in Yamato (Nara), beginning Norinaga’s study under him.
1764: Establishes the Agatai academy in Edo, teaching kokugaku independently.
1769: Dies on October 30 in Edo at age 72 (73 by traditional count).

Throughout his life, Mabuchi traveled between Edo, Kyoto, and his home region, but remained dedicated to studying and teaching Japan’s ancient heritage until his death.