E. O. Wilson

E. O. Wilson
Institutions	Harvard University
Nationality	American
Awards	Pulitzer Prize (twice)
Years	1929–2021
Known for	Sociobiology; myrmecology; biodiversity
Alma mater	University of Alabama; Harvard University
Notable works	Sociobiology: The New Synthesis; The Ants; Consilience
Occupation	Biologist
Field	Biology
Wikidata	Q211029

Edward O. Wilson (1929–2021) was an American biologist who became one of the most influential scientists of the 20th century. He was a world-renowned ant expert (a myrmecologist) and one of the founders of sociobiology – the study of how evolution shapes social behavior in animals (including humans). Wilson’s work ranged from detailed field studies of insect societies to sweeping theories about life on Earth. He wrote popular books on biodiversity and conservation (like The Diversity of Life) and introduced terms such as biophilia (our innate love of nature) and the Half-Earth concept (reserving half the planet for wildlife). Late in his career he championed consilience, the idea that all branches of knowledge – from physics and biology to the humanities and arts – should connect into a unified understanding. His accessible writing earned him two Pulitzer Prizes and made him a public voice for science and environmentalism.

Early Life and Education

Edward Osborne Wilson was born in Birmingham, Alabama, on June 10, 1929. An accident as a boy – a surf-fishing mishap that injured his right eye – left him with impaired depth perception. Later he also suffered partial hearing loss. These physical limitations steered him away from birds (which require keen vision and hearing) and toward insects instead. As a childhood naturalist on the Gulf Coast, Wilson collected butterflies and beetles and became especially fascinated by ants. By age 16 he was determined to study insects (the field of entomology), and he set up a small lab at home to raise and observe them.

After graduating from high school, Wilson earned a B.S. (1949) and M.S. (1950) in biology at the University of Alabama. He then went to Harvard University, completing a Ph.D. in biology in 1955. That same year he married his wife Irene, and the couple later had a daughter. In 1956 Wilson joined Harvard’s biology faculty, where he spent his academic career. Over the decades at Harvard he rose to full professor and held distinguished chairs in science until retiring as University Research Professor emeritus in 1996. He also served for many years as Curator of Insects at Harvard’s Museum of Comparative Zoology. His formal education and upbringing thus combined deep natural history training with exposure to the leading biologists of his era.

Major Works and Ideas

Throughout his career Wilson combined careful fieldwork with big-picture theory. Some of his most important contributions came in these areas:

Ants and social insects: Wilson’s earliest fame was as the world’s leading authority on ants. He conducted exhaustive field surveys and taxonomic studies of ant species around the world, cataloguing hundreds of new species. His work showed how ant colonies function as complex social systems. For example, Wilson and collaborators uncovered that ants communicate mainly by chemical signals (pheromones) rather than sight or sound. He explored how factors like nest structure, food distribution, and genetics shape colony behavior. His 1971 book The Insect Societies provided a comprehensive overview of the ecology, organization, and social behavior of ants and termites. In 1990 he and his longtime collaborator Bert Hölldobler published The Ants, a two-volume magnum opus of modern ant biology. The Ants won the Pulitzer Prize for general nonfiction in 1991 — the only time a specialist science book won that honor. Among the concepts Wilson studied in ants was the superorganism, an idea (from Darwin’s era) that an ant colony can act like one giant organism. He showed how individual ants divide labor but together function as a cohesive whole. He also investigated the “taxon cycle,” a pattern of how species spread and evolve in new habitats (especially on islands). Wilson’s ant research laid the groundwork for many subfields (such as chemical ecology, the study of chemical signals in nature) and provided a model for understanding cooperation and competition in animal societies.

Sociobiology and human nature: In 1975 Wilson published Sociobiology: The New Synthesis, which became a landmark (and controversial) work. In it he argued that social behaviors – including altruism, mating habits, and aggression – have a genetic as well as environmental basis. He pointed out that natural selection can favor behaviors that benefit family members if it helps propagate shared genes (this idea is known as kin selection). For example, an ant sacrificing itself to save its sisters still helps pass on its genes, since insects in a colony are closely related. Wilson extended this logic from insects to all animals: he proposed that human behavior, too, is shaped in part by evolution. He famously challenged the blank slate view that humans are born “blank” and fully molded by culture. His theory held that some tendencies (around 10%, in his estimate) are inherited and that these interact with culture to influence traits like aggression, sexuality, and social cohesion. In 1978 he expanded on these ideas in On Human Nature, which won a Pulitzer Prize in 1979. That book discussed how evolutionary biology applies to human emotions, ethics, and society. Wilson suggested, for instance, that humans have evolved instincts for family loyalty and caring (“biological altruism”) and also certain biases in cultural life.

Wilson’s sociobiological approach provoked passionate debate. Many critics feared it justified inequality or ignored cultural influence. Some accused Wilson of sexism or racism for discussing possible genetic roots of behavior. Notable scientists like Stephen Jay Gould and Richard Lewontin publicly challenged him, and protests sometimes turned personal (legend has it Wilson had a pitcher of water dumped on him during an argument at a conference). Wilson always insisted he was misunderstood: he acknowledged that most human behavior is shaped by environment and learning, not genes. He estimated only about 10% of human actions were genetic, and he emphasized that sociobiology did not imply fixed destiny for individuals. Over time, many of his ideas influenced fields like evolutionary psychology, which explores how evolution influences the mind. Wilson’s work on social evolution also evolved: later he argued that highly social groups (like ant colonies or human societies) can themselves be units of selection, a concept called multilevel selection. In his later books on social evolution, he promoted this view over strict kin selection, sparking new debates in evolutionary theory.

Ecology, biodiversity, and conservation: Wilson was a pioneer in ecology and in drawing attention to the importance of species diversity. Early in his career (1967), he teamed up with Princeton ecologist Robert MacArthur to develop the Theory of Island Biogeography. This theory quantifies how the size and isolation of an “island” (or any habitat patch) determine how many species live there and how likely species are to colonize or go extinct. The idea became foundational in conservation biology: it shows why small habitat fragments lose species faster and helped shape how nature reserves are designed.

Over the next decades Wilson became a leading voice on biodiversity – the variety of life on Earth. He coined the term biophilia to describe humans’ instinctive love of life and nature. In The Diversity of Life (1992) he traced how the huge variety of species on Earth arose through evolution, and he warned of a “sixth great extinction” driven by habitat loss and human impact. He worked to catalog life: for instance, in a 2003 paper he proposed the Encyclopedia of Life, a free online database of all species. His books The Future of Life (2002) and The Creation (2006) argued passionately that preserving biodiversity is a moral and practical imperative. Wilson believed that healthy ecosystems are essential to humans too – that we rely on plants, animals, and insects for food, medicines, and the services ecosystems provide. To protect this web of life, he proposed bold ideas: most famously, the Half-Earth concept. In a 2016 book called Half-Earth, he urged setting aside half of the planet’s land and seas as a global reserve for other species, free from large-scale development. This plan was meant to give wildlife room to survive as human population grows. The Half-Earth proposal energized conservationists and sparked debates about how to balance human needs with environmental protection.

Consilience and the unity of knowledge: In the later part of his career Wilson turned to broad questions about human thought and culture. He coined the term consilience to describe the “jumping together” of knowledge across disciplines. In his 1998 book Consilience: The Unity of Knowledge, he argued that the natural sciences, social sciences, and humanities should all connect through common principles. For example, findings from biology and psychology could inform philosophy or ethics. He called for a “scientific humanism,” maintaining that understanding our biological nature can enrich literature, ethics, history and vice versa. Wilson believed that integrating knowledge would improve education and help solve problems like conservation. His consilience view suggested that human history, art, and religion all have roots in the deep biology of the brain. This idea received mixed reactions: some praised his vision of a unified science, while others in the humanities felt it downplayed culture’s uniqueness. In any case, Wilson worked at the intersection of science and broader society. He even wrote The Creation as a dialogue telling how science and religion could join forces to save “creation” (meaning the biodiversity of Earth). In his final books (such as The Meaning of Human Existence, 2014), he reflected on how understanding evolution and life shapes human purpose and ethics.

Other notable contributions: Wilson also made important advances in the theory of social animals beyond ants. He studied termites, bees, and wasps, often using insects as models for general principles of social behavior. He emphasized that even human society could be studied through evolutionary theory, though not determined by it. In addition, he contributed to understanding trait divergence in species: early in his career he formulated the idea of character displacement, where two similar species evolve differences when they live in the same area to reduce competition. In sum, Wilson’s body of work bridged detailed observation (especially of ants) with sweeping theories about evolution, society, and life on Earth.

Method

Wilson embodied the classic naturalist scientist. He spent countless hours in the field, collecting insects, plants, and ecological data on expeditions around the globe – from the South Pacific to the American tropics and Africa. This empirical, hands-on approach was paired with wide-ranging theoretical insight. For example, he and co-researchers carefully analyzed ant behavior in the lab to draw conclusions about communication and social structure. He also collaborated with experts in other disciplines – working with chemists like William Bossert to study pheromones, or with a mathematician to develop island biogeography. Wilson believed in looking at both the forest and the trees: detailed local study (taxonomic cataloging, field experiments) and also the larger picture (mathematical models, philosophical synthesis).

This interdisciplinary style is a hallmark of his legacy. He was as comfortable describing the microscopic world of ant colonies as deriving general “laws” of biodiversity or musing about human values. His methodological credo was that biology can inform a broad understanding of nature and culture. He freely drew analogies from insect societies to human groups, always aware of the need for careful evidence. Wilson wrote prolifically – sometimes a book a year – synthesizing knowledge from many fields. In effect, his research method was to gather natural-life details and then integrate them through evolution and ecology into global theory.

Influence

E. O. Wilson’s influence on science and culture was profound. He did more than most to put biodiversity on the public and political agenda. His popular books and lectures made the idea of a global extinction crisis well-known long before it was mainstream. Conservation organizations often cite his Half-Earth vision. Wilson’s terminology – “biophilia,” “the Sixth Extinction,” “superorganism,” and more – entered the common lexicon of conservationists and educators.

In the scientific community, Wilson helped spawn several fields. “Sociobiology” opened the door to evolutionary psychology, a discipline that many now use to study how human minds evolved. His work on social insects defined modern entomology and animal behavior studies. Ecologists and conservation biologists continue to use principles from his island biogeography theory when planning nature reserves. In taxonomy, Wilson and colleagues described thousands of species, expanding our knowledge of life’s diversity. He co-founded the field of chemical ecology and was a leading thinker about how genetics and evolution shape social organization.

Wilson also reached a broad audience. He won the Pulitzer Prize twice (for On Human Nature in 1979 and The Ants in 1991), unique honors for a scientist. Time magazine named him one of the 25 most influential Americans. He received more than 100 awards and honors worldwide, including the National Medal of Science (USA), the Crafoord Prize (often called the “biology Nobel Prize”), and medals from conservation groups. Major institutions sought his advice: he lectured at universities, served on committees for bodies like the National Academy of Sciences and UNESCO, and even helped launch the Encyclopedia of Life, a massive online species database.

As an author, Wilson’s clear writing style inspired students and lay readers alike. His autobiography Naturalist (1994) and his novel Anthill (2010) brought science to life through personal narrative and storytelling. Younger scientists often cite Wilson’s books as influences on their career choice. An example of personal impact: the ecologist Thomas Lovejoy (who coined the term “biological diversity”) remarked that Wilson “played the most important role in elevating biodiversity in the public consciousness.” This influence is still visible in how biology is taught and in ongoing conservation campaigns.

Critiques

Wilson was not without critics. The most heated disputes centered on his sociobiology. In the 1970s and 80s, some social scientists and activists charged that his work amounted to scientific determinism. They feared his ideas were being used to justify social inequalities or prejudices in human society. Famous critics like Stephen Jay Gould (a colleague at Harvard) labeled sociobiology “reductionist.” Feminist scholars and others decried what they saw as sexist undertones. These arguments spilled into public forums: Wilson was denounced in magazines, faced hostile questioning at conferences (including having a pitcher of water poured on him), and even had fellow professors petition for his dismissal. While many today see these protests as excessive, at the time they underscored how controversial it was to apply biology to human nature. Wilson held fast, arguing that he was only identifying broad evolutionary influences and that human free will and culture remain powerful. He acknowledged later that he had been politically naive about how sensitive the topic was, and he emphasized that environmental factors shape the majority of behavior.

Other scientific debates followed. In later years, Wilson moved toward multilevel selection – the idea that evolution acts not only on individuals or genes but also on groups or species. He argued, for instance, that human warfare and insect eusociality reflected group-level adaptations. This view clashed with the dominant kin selection theory in evolutionary biology. Some colleagues felt Wilson was betraying his own earlier work and that kin selection sufficed to explain social behavior. The debate became technical but famous, involving complex genetics. It ultimately remains unresolved, but it showed that even well-established scientists can find themselves at odds with their peers.

Wilson’s idea of consilience also drew mixed reactions. Scholars in the humanities sometimes saw it as overly confident about science’s ability to explain culture. He was accused by some of blurring the line between objective science and subjective values. In his 2006 book The Creation, Wilson treated religion and science as potentially complementary, which pleased some audiences but puzzled others. Critics in conservation also questioned parts of his vision: for example, while the Half-Earth plan won standing ovations at conservation meetings, some ethicists pointed out that setting aside half the planet could be impractical or unfair if not done with care for indigenous peoples and local communities. And Wilson’s belief in evolutionary progress (that life naturally evolves toward greater complexity) remains controversial in biology. Many biologists, including Gould, argue that evolution has no inherent direction – a point on which Wilson was in a minority.

Overall, while Wilson’s bold ideas sometimes sparked controversy, they also provoked valuable discussion. His critics helped refine evolutionary theory and ethical guidelines, and in the long run many of Wilson’s insights found support or nuance from ongoing research.

Legacy

E. O. Wilson’s legacy is vast and enduring. He is often called “the father of biodiversity” because of how he galvanized interest in the variety of life. Conservationists continue to use his arguments about extinction and habitat loss to rally protection efforts. The E.O. Wilson Biodiversity Foundation, established by Wilson in 2010, carries on projects like the Half-Earth Initiative and the dissemination of his ideas through education. In 2025, on what would have been his 96th birthday, a large reserve of nearly 8,000 acres in the Mobile-Tensaw Delta (Alabama) was named the E. O. Wilson Land Between the Rivers Preserve, cementing his connection to the Gulf Coast wilderness of his youth.

In science, hundreds of species have been named in Wilson’s honor, reflecting the many organisms he studied. Dozens of awards and lectureships bear his name. Biologists and ecologists still cite his books and theories. His two Pulitzer-winning works remain influential: On Human Nature is often listed as a classic in evolutionary thought, while The Ants is still the definitive reference for myrmecologists. More broadly, Wilson helped shape a worldview in which biology informs everything from economics to ethics.

Even after his death on December 26, 2021, Wilson’s ideas continue to inspire. Universities hold conferences on topics like “E.O. Wilson’s ants” or “Sociobiology and society.” Conservation plans sometimes explicitly use Wilson’s half-Earth slogan. And popular media frequently invoke his vision when covering environmental issues. In sum, Wilson’s contributions to science and public understanding have left a permanent mark. He remains remembered as a fearless, wide-ranging thinker who bridged natural history and big ideas, and who fought to make the protection of life on Earth a top priority for humanity.

Selected Works

The Insect Societies (1971) – Overview of social insects (ants, bees, termites, etc.)
Sociobiology: The New Synthesis (1975) – Foundational text linking evolution and social behavior
On Human Nature (1978) – Extends sociobiology to humans (Pulitzer Prize.
Biophilia (1984) – Essays on humans’ instinctive bond with nature
The Ants (1990, with Bert Hölldobler) – Comprehensive study of ant biology (Pulitzer Prize.
The Diversity of Life (1992) – Exploration of life’s variety and the extinction crisis
Naturalist (1994) – Autobiographical memoir of Wilson’s early life and career
Consilience: The Unity of Knowledge (1998) – Call to unite science and the humanities
The Future of Life (2002) – Plans and visions for protecting Earth’s biodiversity
The Creation: An Appeal to Save Life on Earth (2006) – Dialogue on science and faith for conservation
The Superorganism (2009, with Bert Hölldobler) – Further insights on insect colony societies
The Social Conquest of Earth (2012, with José G. Heredero) – Theory of how social behavior evolved in animals and humans
The Meaning of Human Existence (2014) – Reflections on life, society, and the future of humanity
Half-Earth: Our Planet’s Fight for Life (2016) – Proposal to preserve half the planet as a refuge for nature