Adi Shankara

Adi Shankara
	Adi Shankara, early Indian philosopher and theologian of Advaita Vedānta
Tradition	Hindu philosophy, Advaita Vedānta, Vedanta
Influenced by	Upanishads, Bhagavad Gita, Gaudapada, Vedic tradition
Lifespan	c. 788–820 CE
Notable ideas	Non-dualism (Advaita); unity of Atman and Brahman; commentaries on the Upanishads, Bhagavad Gita, and Brahma Sutras; defense of monistic Vedānta against Buddhism and other schools
Occupation	Philosopher, Theologian, Monk
Influenced	Rāmānuja, Madhva, Vivekananda, Sri Aurobindo, Modern Hindu philosophy
Wikidata	Q180967

Adi Shankara (also Shankaracharya) was an early medieval Indian philosopher and theologian who is regarded as the most influential exponent of Advaita Vedanta (non-dualism) within Hinduism. He is traditionally said to have lived in the first half of the 8th century CE (often dated c. 700–750 CE) and was born in southern India. Shankara traveled across the subcontinent, engaging in debates and discourse to propagate his ideas. He wrote extensive commentaries on core Hindu scriptures (the Brahmasūtras, major Upaniṣads, and the Bhagavad Gītā) and composed original treatises and hymns. In these works he taught that the ultimate reality is one undivided whole (Brahman) and that the apparent multiplicity of the world is ultimately an illusion (māyā). His teachings—summarized in famous Upaniṣadic verses like “Tat tvam asi” (“Thou art that”)—assert the identity of the individual self (ātman) with Brahman. Shankara is credited with systematizing and consolidating the Advaita Vedanta tradition, and over many centuries his ideas have become foundational for much of modern Hindu thought.

Early Life and Education

According to traditional accounts, Shankara was born in a Brahmin family in a village called Kalady on the Periyar River in present-day Kerala, in southern India. These hagiographies (written centuries later) state that his parents were Shivaguru and Aryamba, and that he showed a strong spiritual inclination from a young age. His father is said to have died when Shankara was still a child. Inspired by what might be a legendary incident involving a crocodile, Shankara convinced his mother to allow him to become a sannyāsin (renunciant ascetic) at an early age. He left home to seek a teacher and spiritual knowledge, reportedly against his mother’s wishes.

Shankara became a disciple of Govinda Bhagavatpāda, a monk who himself had been taught by the sage Gauḍapāda. Gauḍapāda was the author of the Māndūkya-Kārikā, a key text of early Advaita Vedanta, known for its apparent affinities with Buddhist Mahāyāna thought. Under Govinda, Shankara is said to have studied the Vedas, the Upaniṣads, and the Brahmasūtra aphorisms, deeply immersing himself in Vedanta philosophy. By age 20, legend says he had mastered the scriptures and begun traveling across India. Historical evidence about his life is sparse, and much of what is “known” comes from later biographies that mix history and myth. Even his exact dates are debated. Traditional sources often gave the years 788–820 CE, but modern scholars usually place him slightly earlier (c. 700–750 CE). A few later traditions even claimed much older dates (such as 509 BCE or the 6th century CE), but these are now generally dismissed by historians as attempts to aggrandize his authority. In any case, Shankara is most commonly identified with the first half of the 8th century.

Little is known of Shankara’s personal education beyond his studies with Govinda. Tradition records that he was adept in Sanskrit and Vedic learning by adolescence. After completing his formal education, he ordained himself as a renunciant (initiated into the monastic lifestyle). He then traveled widely: accounts say he visited spiritual centers like Varanasi (Kashi), Prayaga, Badarikashrama (Badrinath), and distant eastern and southern shrines. He is credited with engaging philosophers of other schools (Buddhism, Jainism, and rival Hindu traditions) in debate, and with converting many to his nondual interpretation. Tradition further holds that he established four major mathas (monastic centers) at the four corners of India—at Shringeri (South), Dvārakā (West), Puri (East), and Badrī (North)—which became centers for teaching Advaita Vedanta. (Some scholars question whether he personally founded all these institutions or simply inherited or formalized existing ones, but in the Advaita tradition he is regarded as the organizer of the Dashanāmī monastic order of ten lineages, linking these mathas to a common system.)

The biographies also say Shankara lived only a short life, passing away around age 30 or 32. He is traditionally believed to have “merged” or taken samādhi at the Kedarnāth temple in the Himalayas (in present-day Uttarakhand) around 750 CE. Other versions give alternate sites (such as Kanchipuram or a spot in Kerala), but the Kedarnāth shrine is most often associated with his final days. In Hindu tradition he is sometimes revered as an incarnation of Śiva (his family deity) or as Adi Guru (“first teacher”) of the Smarta sect, though such honors are devotional rather than historical claims. What is clear is that written records directly from Shankara’s time do not exist, and later anything attributed to him must be checked carefully. Nonetheless, even early sources acknowledge that reliable biographical details are hard to separate from legend.

Major Works and Ideas

Shankara’s reputation rests largely on the corpus of writings attributed to him. He is said to have written well over 100 treatises (with more than 300 works attributed in all), although scholars agree that only a portion of these can be confidently ascribed to him. His known authentic works fall into three broad categories:

Commentaries (Bhāṣyas): Shankara composed bhāṣyas on the canonical “Prasthāna Traya”, the three foundational texts of Vedanta: the Brahmasūtras (Vedānta-sūtras) of Bādarāyaṇa, most of the principal Upaniṣads, and the Bhagavad Gītā. In particular, he wrote the Brahmasūtra Bhāṣya, regarded as his masterpiece of logical exposition. He also wrote glosses on the Māndūkya Upaniṣad and Gauḍapāda’s commentary (the Māndūkya Kārikā), and possibly on the Yoga Sūtra (Vyāsa’s work) via an bhāṣya-vivaraṇa. These commentaries interpret the often terse aphorisms in a nondual (Advaita) manner. (Traditional lists say he annotated about a dozen Upaniṣads; modern scholarship accepts most of these ten or so principal Upaniṣads as genuine Shankara works, with some minor exceptions.) Shankara’s commentaries systematically explain scriptural passages to support his main thesis: that Brahman is the one real Essence, and everything else is measured in relation to it.

Prakaraṇa Granthas (Independent Treatises): Besides commentaries, Shankara wrote original expository works to introduce and elaborate Advaita doctrine. The most famous is Upadeśa Sāhasrī (“A Thousand Teachings”), a prose dialogue of questions and answers which serves as a concise guide to Advaita. He is also traditionally credited with the Vivekacūḍāmaṇi (“Crest Jewel of Discrimination”), a celebrated mahākāvya (great text) in verse form that teaches discrimination between the real and unreal. Other attributed works include Brahmabodha, Tattvabodha, Nirvāṇa-Śatakam (“Six Verses on Liberation”), and expositions on the Bhagavad Gītā beyond his commentary. (Scholars debate the authorship of some of these; for example, the Vivekacūḍāmaṇi has been questioned, but it is so interwoven into Advaita tradition that it is often treated as essentially Shankara’s teaching.) Collectively, his prakaraṇa granthas were meant for students of Vedanta, using accessible language and devotional elements, unlike the dense commentaries.

Devotional Hymns (Stotras): Shankara also composed a number of devotional poems and hymns integrating Advaita themes. Among the most famous are the Saundarya Lahari (“Waves of Beauty”, a paean to the Goddess), the Bhaja Govindam (a devotional song emphasizing jñāna), the Kanakadhara Stotra (on Lakshmi), and several stotras to Shiva, Vishnu, and the Guru. These devotional works stress the unity of manifestations of the divine: though they praise particular deities, the poems make clear that all forms are ultimately aspects of the one Brahman. Poets in later centuries in Kerala and elsewhere noted these hymns as evidence that Shankara’s outlook was inclusive and aimed at smriti (remembrance) of the formless Absolute.

In these works Shankara articulated a set of defining ideas, chief among them:

Advaita (Non-Dualism): Shankara taught that ultimate reality (Brahman) is absolutely one, without a second. Brahman is described as sat (existence absolute), cit (consciousness), and ānanda (bliss), the eternal substratum of everything. The individual self (jīva or ātman) is in its innermost nature identical with Brahman. Thus, the famous Upaniṣadic declaration * “Tat tvam asi”* (“Thou art that”) and “Ahaṃ Brahmāsmi” (“I am Brahman”) are taken literally by him: the seeming difference between the world and the Self is due only to ignorance (avidyā). This view sharply contrasts with dualistic (Dvāita) or qualified dualistic (Viśiṣṭādvaita) philosophies, which see the individual soul and God as ultimately distinct. Shankara insisted that all scriptures merely hint at Brahman’s nature through negation (neti neti, “not this, not that”) and approving affirmations, and that only a non-dual interpretative stance is consistent with the essence of the Upaniṣads.

Māyā and Avidyā (Illusion and Ignorance): To explain how multiplicity and suffering can exist if Brahman is the only reality, Shankara used the concept of māyā. The observable world (jagat) is said to be mithyā (not absolutely real and not utterly unreal) – a dependent, insubstantial appearance. Māyā is the inscrutable power that projects names and forms on Brahman, analogous to mistaking a rope for a snake at night. Avidyā (ignorance) is the individual’s false superimposition of delusion onto reality. In practical day-to-day life (vyavahārika), the world functions according to cause and effect, but in the highest truth (puruṣārtha; satya graha) only Brahman remains. Liberation (mokṣa) comes when the veil of māyā is lifted by knowledge (jñāna), revealing the Self’s identity with Brahman. Shankara carefully maintained that māyā has no independent existence and cannot affect Brahman; yet it is real enough at the empirical level to give rise to action, karma, and cycles of rebirth for unenlightened beings.

Role of Scripture and Sruti-vākya (Revealed Teachings): A central tool in Shankara’s method is authoritative scripture – especially the Upaniṣads, which he considered the highest source of knowledge on the nature of reality. He treated śruti (heard/revealed texts) as decisive in establishing philosophy. His commentaries proceed by analyzing scripture aphorisms, often reconciling apparent contradictions by interpreting them in context. Shankara emphasized mahāvākyas – grand statements from the Upaniṣads (like tat tvam asi or aham brahmāsmi) – as direct revelations of the ātman-Brahman identity. He also drew on verses from the Bhagavad Gītā (e.g. “He who sees His Self in all and all in His Self, never turns away from it – Vedānta Sūtra 4.4.13” [Shankara on Gītā 6.30]) to illustrate non-dual truth. In his view, the correct philosophical system is the one that best harmonizes all revealed truths about Brahman.

Path to Knowledge (Śravaṇa, Manana, Nididhyāsana): Shankara described a threefold practice for realization. First is śravaṇa – listening attentively to the teaching of a competent teacher or scripture. Second is manana – reflecting on the meaning, reasoning out the truths of the teaching and removing doubts. Third is nididhyāsana – deep meditative contemplation on the revealed identity of ātman and Brahman. This process, often formalized in later Advaitic tradition, underscores that mere intellectual study is not enough; true jñāna arises when one internally assimilates and experiences the non-dual truth. In a related teaching he advocated neti-neti (literally “not this, not that”) – a method of negating all limited attributes of the self to discern the attributeless Brahman. Unlike some dualist schools, Shankara did not give primacy to ritual karma. He argued that rituals and moral actions (karmas) have only provisional importance, clearing the mind for knowledge but not able to confer liberation themselves. In other words, after ethical training and ritual merit prepare one, final emancipation is achieved only by insight into Brahman.

Ethical and Devotional Aspects: Though Shankara is primarily known for jñānayoga (path of knowledge), his original works incorporate bhakti (devotion) within an Advaita framework. He taught that devotion to a personal god (Viṣṇu, Śiva, etc.) can purify the mind and serve as a support on the way toward non-dual realization. This later influenced the Smārta tradition, which venerates multiple deities as equal manifestations of Brahman. In practice, Shankara discouraged sectarianism; his hymns address both Śiva and Viṣṇu worshippers and emphasize unity. For instance, one of his devotional poems says that devotion to any true form of God ultimately leads to Brahman. This ecumenical stance helped unify various strands of Hindu worship under the broad canopy of Vedanta.

Major Themes Recap: In summary, Shankara’s Advaita Vedanta centers on the idea that the only reality is Brahman (infinite Consciousness-Bliss), and ignorance of this truth results in the perception of a world of separate objects and selves. By disciplined study of scripture and meditation, a qualified seeker can pierce this ignorance and realize that the individual soul was never truly different from the Self. Shankara’s works elaborate this worldview in logical detail across verses and commentaries. Today the key points often summarized as “Brahman is sat-cit-ānanda, the Self is not other than Brahman, the world is māyā, liberation is jñāna.”

Method and Philosophy

Shankara’s overall philosophical method was to interpret the Vedic texts through the lens of non-dualism. He insisted on rigorous scriptural backing for any doctrine. To build his case, Shankara employed formal argumentation (e.g. anyayukti – inference according to other texts) and critical refutation of opposing views. His approach is sometimes described as more “psychological and religious” than purely logical; that is, he often appealed to the inner coherence of experience and revelation rather than purely abstract syllogism. Yet his writings show meticulous use of logic and definitions to counter rival philosophies.

A core task in Shankara’s method was refuting any viewpoint that threatened non-duality. He often criticized schools that held the world as ultimately real (like the Viśiṣṭādvaita and Dvaita traditions of Vedanta, or certain Sāṅkhya views), and those that denied the Self (some forms of Buddhism). When confronting Brāhmaṇa ritualists (the Mīmāṃsā school), Shankara argued that knowledge of Brahman (not mere fire-rituals) was the true goal endorsed by the Upaniṣads. With Buddhists, he argued that Buddhism’s denial of an eternal Self was logically inconsistent: if there is no Self, then who gains enlightenment or suffers karma? (This was a classical Advaita counter-railing point.) So Shankara’s methodology included debating and demonstrating how his non-dual interpretation resolved philosophical puzzles more satisfactorily. For example, he parsed through subtle linguistic nuances of Upaniṣadic Sanskrit to show that apparent statements of duality (like “All is real”) could be reconciled with oneness when properly understood.

In terms of epistemology, Shankara accepted perception (pratyakṣa) and inference (anumāna) as valid means of knowing the empirical world, but regarded the ultimate non-dual knowledge as an intuitive realization given by the human intellect reflecting on the Self. In his view, Brahman is svayam prakāśa (self-illuminating); knowledge of Brahman is immediate once ignorance is removed. This self-luminosity implies that Brahman does not need proofs to exist – it simply is. Therefore, part of Shankara’s teaching is that learning scripture is not to gain data about Brahman, but to remove the obstacles to perceiving what is already true. He used the term avidyā for the fundamental ignorance that veils awareness of one’s true nature. Shankara said avidyā cannot be completely categorized: it is neither purely real nor unreal, and is ultimately indescribable (as it applies only to the empirical level). This subtle view highlights how mysterious he considered the mechanism of illusion in Advaita.

Shankara often used metaphors from everyday life to illustrate abstract ideas. One famous example is the snake-and-rope analogy: in dim light a rope is mistaken for a snake. The fear of the snake and the belief in its reality is ignorance; on closer look, one sees only the rope. Likewise, the manifold world is superimposed on Brahman by ignorance; when true knowledge arises, one sees only the singular Self. Another example is a dream: in sleep one experiences a whole world of objects and events as real, but upon waking realizes it was a mere mental projection. Shankara likened the waking world to the dream, concluding it has no substance independent of the perceiver’s mind and the One Reality. These intuitions reinforced his argument that the world is not ultimately “other” than the Self.

Mahāvyākya Meditation: Shankara instructed students to contemplate the great oneness statements of the Upaniṣads (the mahāvākyas) as a central practice. For instance, “Prajnanam Brahma” (“Consciousness is Brahman”) or “Ayam Atma Brahma” (“This Self is Brahman”) are meditated upon analytically. Rather than taking these declarations as poetic, Shankara reads them as direct keys to the truth. In his method, a teacher would guide the student to śravaṇa (hearing the teaching of such statements from scripture), manana (reflecting to ensure understanding), and nididhyāsana (continual meditation to interiorize the truth until it is realized). When this process is complete, the student is said to attain aparokṣa jñāna (immediate knowledge) of non-duality. At that point, effort (karma) and knowledge (jnana) coincide – the student’s self and Brahman are one.

Importantly, Shankara maintained that mokṣa (liberation) is attainable in this life, through enlightenment. He did acknowledge that severe ascetic practices or good karma can help purify the mind, but insisted those are not the direct cause of final liberation. Instead, liberation is caused by vidyā (knowledge) of Brahman’s reality. Once the false notion of separation vanishes, the soul realizes it never truly left Brahman, and emerges from the cycle of birth and rebirth (samsara). In a famous quote, he sums up the Advaita path: “Brahman is the beginning and end of all”, and thus “having known Brahman, a person goes beyond fear.” This underscores how central knowledge of the Self is in his view.

Influence and Reception

Adi Shankara’s impact on Hindu philosophy and religion has been profound. Within a few centuries of his life, Advaita Vedanta became one of the dominant schools of Hindu thought. The four mathas he is said to have established – at Śringeri (Sringeri), Jagannāth (Puri), Śarada (Dwarka), and Badari (Badrinath) – became influential centers of learning and pilgrimage. Each matha took responsibility for preserving texts and training teachers in Advaita. In this way, Shankara’s teachings were institutionalized across India. The smārta tradition (which venerates five deities equally) credits him with integrating diverse devotional paths. For example, Shankara himself is traditionally said to have traveled India debating and teaching; some accounts relate that he convinced many devotional cults to recognize a common philosophical basis in Advaita while still allowing worship of Shiva, Vishnu, or Sakti as manifestations of the same Brahman.

His philosophical influence extends beyond the medieval period. In later centuries, figures like Ramānujācārya (ca. 1017–1137 CE) and Madhvācārya (1238–1317 CE) responded to Shankara’s doctrines by elaborating their own Vedānta schools (Viśiṣṭādvaita and Dvaita, respectively) that directly critique Advaita. The dialogues between these traditions enriched Hindu metaphysics. Meanwhile, Shankara’s Advaita was kept alive in various teachers’ lineages (for instance, Suresvānābhāsācārya in the 8th century and later Vidyāranya in the 14th century are noted propagators). The saint-poet tradition of southern India (śaṅkaravāñi) and the bhakti movement also borrowed from Advaitic ideas, blending them with devotional spirituality.

With the encounter between India and Europe in the colonial era, Shankara’s thought gained a new audience. British Indologists in the 19th century often presented Advaita as the “essence” of Indian religion, due in part to the influence of Shankara’s writings. Scholars like Max Müller and others studied Shankara’s texts, though sometimes they overemphasized Advaita due to limited perspective. In modern times, figures like Swami Vivekananda (late 19th–early 20th century) and Mahatma Gandhi have cited Shankara as an inspiration for understanding India’s spiritual unity and for presenting Hinduism in the West. Today, Advaita Vedanta remains widely studied not only in India but internationally, and Shankara is often referenced by spiritual teachers of non-dual thought outside the strict Hindu context.

Culturally, Shankara is revered as one of the Jagadgurus (world teachers). Shrines to him exist at places associated with his life, and he is sometimes depicted in art meeting other sages or leading debates. The title "Shankaracharya" – leader of the Shankara line – continues to be borne by heads of certain monasteries, claiming an unbroken tradition to Shankara himself. Philosophers and writers often consider his works classics of Indian philosophy. Some of his phrases and analogies have entered common parlance among educated Hindus. In modern India, Shankara’s birthday is celebrated in many Advaita institutions with discourses on his teachings.

Critiques and Debates

Shankara’s teachings have also been subject to criticism and debate, both historically and in modern scholarship. Within the Vedānta tradition, the main theological critiques came from Ramānujācārya (Visiṣṭādvaita) and Madhvācārya (Dvaita). Ramānuja agreed that Brahman is the foundation of all, but argued that individuality and difference are real as modes of Brahman’s body; he held that devotion (bhakti) to a personal God (often Vishnu) is the path to liberation. Madhva insisted on an eternal difference between God, souls, and matter, viewing Shankara’s monism as ultimately dismissing the reality of the world too much. Both schools accused Shankara of undercutting the authority of the Vedas’ many gods (for whom devotion and ritual had meaning) by promoting a strict formless Brahman. Shankara responded to these concerns in his commentaries by explaining that worship of God with attributes (saguṇa) serves beginners, and that rituals have a provisional role. These discussions shaped medieval Indian philosophy for centuries.

Buddhists and Jains of Shankara’s time also objected to aspects of Advaita. Some Buddhist scholars accused Shankara of borrowing heavily from Buddhist Madhyamaka ideas (e.g. the notion of the world as an illusion), branding him “Buddhist in disguise.” However, Shankara fiercely attacked Buddhist doctrines of śūnyatā (emptiness) and anātman (no-self), arguing that they either negate the possibility of liberation or lead to nihilism. He pointed out that Buddhism denies the existence of an unchanging self, which he regarded as self-contradictory. Modern scholars continue to discuss the relationship between Shankara’s non-dualism and Buddhist thought, with some noting influences and others emphasizing key differences (for instance, Shankara affirmed a permanent foundation, whereas Buddhism emphasizes flux). In any case, these interactions became a formative part of how Shankara defined Advaita against its rivals.

Historically, there are debates about Shankara’s own narrative. Several biographies (Śankara-vijayas) claim he performed miracles and defeated all rival schools, but these are often dismissed by academics as legend. Even his mathematical chronology is disputed: the dates, places, and genealogies in medieval monk-lists sometimes differ. Some modern historians have questioned whether all the works attributed to Shankara were written by one person or by multiple Acharyas named Shankara. Critics point out inconsistencies in style and content among these works. In response, many Advaita defenders note that Shankara was a prodigious genius and could plausibly have authored many texts. The scholarly consensus tends to accept the core commentaries (on the Brahma Sutras, principal Upanishads, and Bhagavad Gītā) as genuine, and views the status of smaller works (like some Upaniṣad glosses or minor hymnals) as uncertain. These authorship debates do not undermine the central doctrines attributed to Shankara, but they remind us that our picture of his life and output is partly constructed by later tradition.

Legacy

Adi Shankara’s legacy is evident in the continuing vitality of Advaita Vedanta today. The mathas and monastic orders long associated with him still function as custodians of his teachings. In these centers, the study of Sanskrit scripture and meditation practices are carried on in the name of Shankara’s institution. Modern Hindu spiritual teachers frequently draw on Shankara’s ideas, and translations of his works (especially his major commentaries and the Upadeśa Sāhasrī) remain in print. His influence also extends into contemporary philosophy of religion, where scholars study Shankara to compare with Western metaphysics on consciousness and reality.

Culturally, Shankara figures as an exemplar of the Vedantic quest. He is often credited with helping unify Hindu practice by emphasizing underlying unity. Festivals, lectures, and books commemorate his contributions. Even outside India, nondual teachers sometimes quote Shankara when explaining that at the core of everything lies a singular consciousness.

Some of Shankara’s most poignant statements continue to be quoted by devotees and seekers. For example, lines like “Brahman alone exists, the world is illusory, and the individual Self is none other than Brahman” (a summary of his teaching) capture the heart of his message. This concise expression of Advaita Vedanta permeates many modern spiritual discourses. Though not every Hindu accepts Shankara’s strict monism, and though many devotee traditions focus on personal gods, it is universally acknowledged that Shankara’s arguments helped Hinduism adapt to challenges of his time and continue to provoke profound thought today.

In sum, Shankara’s legacy is that of a great doctrinal organizer and teacher. He instilled Advaita Vedanta as a coherent philosophical tradition, and his works laid the foundation for much of subsequent Hindu theology. By championing the oneness of existence, he shaped the way many Hindus understand spirituality. As one scholar notes, Shankara’s Advaita has been “the source from which the main currents of modern Indian thought are derived.” As such, he remains a monumental figure in the intellectual history of India.

Selected Works

Brahma-sūtra Bhāṣya : Commentary on the Brahma-sūtras of Bādarāyaṇa. Considered Shankara’s magnum opus, it systematically reconciles Upaniṣadic statements to prove non-dualism.
Upaniṣad Bhāṣyas: Commentaries on the principal Upaniṣads (including Īśa, Kena, Katha, Muṇḍaka, Māndūkya, Praśna, Taittirīya, Aitareya, Chāndogya, Bṛhadāraṇyaka). Each explains the Upaniṣad’s message from an Advaita perspective.
Bhagavad Gītā Bhāṣya: Commentary on the Gītā, aligning Krishna’s teaching with Advaita. It highlights the identity of ātman and Brahman even in a text rich with devotional elements.
Upadeśa Sāhasrī (or Upadeśa Śatakam): “A Thousand Teachings.” An original prose work, presented as a dialog of questions and answers. It serves as an introductory manual to Shankara’s philosophy.
Vivekacūḍāmaṇi: “Mace of Discrimination.” A well-known devotional-poetic work that expounds the path of discrimination between real (Brahman) and unreal (world). (Authorship of this text is traditionally attributed to Shankara, though some scholars have debated it.)
Bhaja Govindam: A devotional hymn advising the worship of Govinda (Krishna) and pondering the fleeting nature of life, commonly attributed to Shankara. It is a popular stotra stressing the importance of spiritual wisdom over temporal learning.
Saundarya Lahari: “Waves of Beauty.” A mystical hymn dedicated to Goddess Lakshmi (or Śakti), blending devotional praise with subtle non-dual symbolism. Its authorship is traditionally ascribed to Shankara.
Tattvabodha, Atmabodha, Nirvāṇa-Śatakam: Short didactic texts in simple language, each clarifying fundamental Advaita concepts like the nature of reality, the Self, and liberation. These serve as primers for beginners.
Māndūkya Kārikā Bhāṣya: Commentary on Gauḍapāda’s Māndūkya Kārikā. This work is important because Gauḍapāda’s verses already presented an early form of Advaita; Shankara’s commentary is his earliest dated writing.

These selected works illustrate Shankara’s range: rigorous philosophical exegesis on scriptures, accessible introductions to Vedanta, and devotional poetry. Collectively they establish the core literature of classical Advaita Vedanta.

Timeline (approximate)

c. 700 CE: Birth in Kalady (Kerala) to a Nambudiri Brahmin family.
Childhood: Education in Vedas; father dies.
c. 712: Takes sannyāsa (ascetic vows) at a young age and becomes disciple of Govinda Bhagavatpāda.
Early 720s: Studies Vedanta, especially the Māndūkya Upaniṣad and Māndūkya Kārikā with his guru; composes his first works.
Mid-720s to 740s: Extensive travels throughout India (north to Himalayas, east to Bengal, south to Tamil Nadu) engaging in debates. Writes commentaries on Upaniṣads, Brahma-sūtra, and Bhagavad Gītā. Founds or consolidates four mathas.
c. 750: Final years in the Himalayas; attains samādhi at Kedarnāth (the exact year is uncertain, estimates range up to around 820 in some sources, but scholarly consensus favors earlier).

(Dates are tentative due to conflicting traditions. The above reflects the view that Shankara flourished in the first half of the 8th century.)